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Public speaking: types, features, rules, how to learn. Public Speaking Rules

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COURSE WORK

on the topic: "Methods of public speaking"

Plan

Introduction

1. Trends in the development of public speaking methods

2. Logic public speaking

3. Scheme of public speaking

4. Heuristic rhetoric

5. Stylistic and lexical devices in public speaking

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Democracy presupposes openness, publicity, broad responsible discussions, public speeches, which play a huge role in the possibility of expressing the most diverse points of view, in improving the social atmosphere, in multiplying the spiritual wealth of life, in uniting all the progressive forces of society. One of the main features of democracy is the ability to convince with a truthful, free word. This requires a speaker in a variety of audiences, sometimes very complex, high skill, based on a good knowledge of the material and active possession of real speech - the speaker's weapon. This requires colossal responsibility for the spoken word and the utmost exactingness to one's speech.

The purpose of this work is to consider the methods of public speaking.

1. Trends in the development of public speaking methods

Beginning with the ancient Greeks, two trends can be clearly seen in the development of rhetoric as an art of persuasion. One of them is related to the method of dialogue practiced by Socrates and developed in detail in Plato's dialogues, brilliant in form and deep in content. Currently, this method is called the Socratic method of setting systematic questions and analyzing the answers received for a joint search for truth and clarifying and coordinating their positions on the issue under discussion. It can be successfully used to enhance the learning process, stimulate independence and creative thinking, both among students and students. Recently, J. Hintikka and D. Bachman have given the Socratic method a new form, combining it with the ideas of interrogative logic and game theory. But the dialogue can also be viewed in a broader context, when, for example, it comes to a joint search for truth and argumentation in a judicial contest between the prosecution and the defense, scientific discussion, and polemics on acute issues of social and political life.

Another trend that has become traditional in classical rhetoric is associated with the name of Aristotle and the content of his work Rhetoric. In it, rhetoric is seen as a teaching that contributes to “finding possible ways of persuading about each given subject,” while “every other science can teach and convince only about what belongs to its field.” This goal is achieved by applying logical reasoning to "non-technical", in the words of Aristotle, means of persuasion, to which he refers to facts, eyewitness accounts, written contracts, oaths, and even testimony obtained under torture. These means are given to us, not invented or built by us, which include logical reasoning. It is easy to see that in Aristotle's rhetoric, logic is used as an applied doctrine, and he himself clearly distinguishes it from Analytics. This is explained by the fact that in rhetoric, to simplify speech, instead of full syllogisms, their abbreviated forms, namely enthymemes, are used, and inductive generalizations are replaced by examples representing them. This approach of Aristotle subsequently became the basis of the traditional view of argumentation as demonstrative reasoning. But in the works of the great Greek, in particular in "Topeka", there are initial ideas of another direction of research, in which not evidential, but plausible reasoning, which he called dialectical, is used.

These ideas have been systematically developed only in our time, mainly in the works of H. Perelman, the founder of the Belgian school. Studying the reasoning used by representatives of the humanitarian professions and practitioners, Perelman, together with Olbrechts-Titeka, rediscovered that part of Aristotle's logic, which he called dialectics. So they titled their extensive treatise on argumentation New Rhetoric. Unlike Aristotle, they considered a wider class of plausible reasoning, and the formal proofs of modern mathematical logic and the foundations of mathematics are completely excluded from the field of argumentation because the latter deal with purely formal proofs, while the theory of argumentation uses only informal proofs.

An important new concept introduced by Perelman and other theorists is the concept of the audience, from which the argumentator seeks to obtain agreement with his statements and arguments. Another important feature of modern approaches to argumentation is an attempt to build a more adequate model of it by introducing additional characteristics of various classes of judgments and analyzing their relationships in the real process of arguing or discussion. As an initial model, many researchers take a litigation, where the conditions of argumentation are precisely regulated and ordered by the relevant legal laws and procedural rules. This approach is especially persistently defended by S. Tulmin, who considers the logic created for argumentation to be generalized jurisprudence. Such logic should, according to a number of theorists, not just copy the legal model, but highlight and generalize the most significant features of the argumentation used in various areas of theoretical and practical activities especially the humanitarian one.

In real practice, argumentation is carried out in close connection with other components of persuasion. Even Aristotle in his “Rhetoric” pointed out that persuasion is achieved, firstly, by the character and behavior of the speaker, secondly, by his emotional impact on listeners, and thirdly, by the content of logical evidence. Such a complex interweaving of psychological, ethical, emotional, stylistic, aesthetic, etc. Factors of persuasion with logical-rational significantly complicates independent research and definition of argumentation.

The process of persuasion is that part of the communicative activity, which is of a pronounced inertial nature, aimed at influencing a change in the views, opinions and behavior of people. But this change in the views and actions of people is achieved not by coercion associated with violence, restriction of freedom and strict control of the actions and actions of people, but by their persuasion. The latter implies such an impact in which people have the opportunity to act at their own discretion, have free will, can consciously and practically evaluate the proposed solutions and arguments in their defense. public speaking heuristic rhetoric

Argumentation, unlike other forms of persuasion, is its rational and logical component, which affects people's minds and therefore has a stronger and more lasting effect on people's consciousness and behavior. It is oriented from the outset, first, to the logical analysis of the relationship between the conclusions and the arguments, or arguments, applied to this reasoning. Second, reasoning relies on rational analysis and evaluation of data that support and substantiate its conclusions. If the conclusion is derived from the arguments according to the rules of logical inference (deduction), then it is called demonstrative, evidentiary or deductive argumentation. In many other cases, the arguments, or reasons given, only more or less support or make the conclusions plausible or probable. Therefore, such an argument is called non-demonstrative, plausible or probable.

In our literature, especially in textbooks on logic, it is widely believed that argumentation is reduced to demonstrative reasoning. Apparently, this view is explained primarily by the fact that demonstrative, evidence-based argumentation is the most convincing form of substantiating statements, opinions and positions, because it leads to reliable conclusions. In contrast, with non-demonstrative argumentation, the conclusions are always only plausible or probable and therefore have a partially justified and indefinite character. The most important thing is that such argumentation depends heavily on relevant data, and therefore their result cannot be evaluated without reference to them. However, such an argument cannot be dispensed with either in humanitarian research or in the adoption of practical solutions on many important issues of socio-political and socio-economic activity. That is why argumentation cannot be limited to demonstrative reasoning, but includes various forms non-demonstrative reasoning (induction, analogy, statistical generalizations, etc.). The nature of the argument is also largely determined by the composition of the audience to which the speaker, publicist, public figure addresses in order to obtain from her agreement with the theses put forward and the arguments confirming and substantiating them. Obtaining consent is an important criterion for the effectiveness of argumentation and should always be taken into account.

A wide variety of means and methods of argumentation makes it necessary to analyze its logical structure, as well as discuss and evaluate the data on which it relies when substantiating conclusions, theses, opinions and decisions.

2. The logic of public speaking

The most important quality of the effectiveness of public speaking is its consistency and evidence. A true speaker cannot rely only on common sense and improvisation. It is necessary to master the logical laws of evidence, reasoning. These laws, first of all, apply to the verbal definition of concepts, logical conclusions, proof of one's point of view in the process of polemics.

The more convincing the speech of the speaker, the more effective the perception of listeners, the more confidence is created in the reliability and reliability of the information heard. It is generally accepted that he who thinks logically speaks logically clearly. Therefore, the primary task of the speaker, even in the process of preparing for a public speech, is to think through to the smallest detail the logic of his speech, the argumentation of his conclusions and generalizations.

The logical scheme of the proof is most often composed of 3 elements:

1. The thesis is the starting position, the speaker seeks to prove the truth. Conversely, if the truth of the thesis is doubtful for the speaker, then it is unlikely that the thesis will be convincing for others. When formulating a thesis, it should be remembered that it must be clear and precise, not contain contradictions. The vagueness of the thesis or its substitution are the most typical mistakes in the speech of an insufficiently experienced speaker.

2. An argument is a logical argument, the truth of which has been tested and proven by practice. An argument is a necessary part of any proof. The most powerful argument in the process of proof are facts, the truth of which is not questioned.

3. Evidence by way of reasoning can be direct or indirect. When relying on a direct method of proof, the arguments directly substantiate the truth of the thesis. With the indirect method, the evidence of the truth is justified by proving the falsity of the contradictory position.

Logical argumentation on a particular issue in the process of public speaking can be deployed in 3 versions: inductively (from particular factors to general conclusions), deductively (from general provisions to particular conclusions) and in combination, i.e. Inductively and deductively at the same time.

With the inductive nature of the proof, the speaker relies on individual facts, individual, most often pre-selected examples, hypotheses and ideas put forward by him. With inductive proof, it is necessary to think over and select at the stage of preparation for the speech:

The most significant facts, separate, most often pre-selected examples;

Such a number of facts and examples so that their analysis and generalization give a convincing conclusion, conclusion;

Facts and examples should be close and understandable to the audience, the level of education and training of students.

There can be many inductive conclusions in the process of public speaking. It can be a statistically verified or established fact by sociologists, an interesting article in a newspaper, a relevant joke, a fragment from a book, a movie, etc. It is important that a series of private facts, examples illustrate your idea and lead listeners to the generalizations and conclusions you need.

With the deductive nature of the proof, the deployment of the argument proceeds from general to particular conclusions.

Deductive proof requires that the initial theoretical position, law, principle be either universally recognized or so convincing that it does not cause doubts among listeners. And for this it is necessary that:

The listeners were previously familiar with the initial theoretical knowledge on the basis of which the deductive proof is built, or it should not cause any doubts in them;

The transition of reasoning from general position to the particular should be accompanied not by any examples, but by the most convincing and vivid, memorable.

With mixed inductive-deductive proof, all the above recommendations should be taken into account at the same time.

Very often, speakers make logical errors in defining concepts.

A typical mistake is to enumerate 2-3 features of a concept, on the basis of which its definition is given. There are several ways to define concepts. The most common is a definition indicating belonging to a common (genus) or highlighting specific (species) differences that distinguish this thing from all other things. For example, a speaker in the process of discussing the problem of creativity gives the following definition of it: "Creativity is a kind of human activity, the result of which is the awareness of new, original spiritual and material values." The generic concept in this case will be "human activity", and its specific differences - "creation of new, original spiritual and material values".

In the process of logically correct, evidence-based reasoning, certainty, clarity, consistency and validity of conclusions and conclusions are inevitably achieved.

In order for the speaker's speech to be correct and conclusive, he needs to know and systematically rely on the basic laws of logic.

Law of sufficient reason. The essence of this law is that any correct thought must be substantiated by other thoughts (arguments, statements), the truth of which has been verified by practice. In general, the speaker should always and in everything adhere to

Rules: practice is the highest criterion of truth!

The law of identity. The essence of the law of identity lies in the fact that each thought in the process of a single reasoning retains the same definite content, no matter how many times it is repeated. The law of identity should be especially taken into account in the context of a dispute, discussion, when using insufficiently clearly defined concepts. For example, there is a discussion of the use of the concept " creative person". At the same time, different meaningful characteristics of a creative personality are introduced into the discussion each time. One speaker focuses on intuition, another on creative thinking, and the third on creativity... It is clear that in the process of discussion, when using the concept of "creative personality" it is necessary to stipulate what semantic content is introduced in this case. After that, it is necessary that the scope of the content of the concept of "creative personality" does not change.

The law of exclusion of the third. This law is formed as follows: two contradictory thoughts about the same object, taken at the same time and in the same respect, cannot be both true and false at the same time: one of them is true and the other is false, and There is no third.

The essence of this law will be clear if we say that one cannot simultaneously agree with 2 opposite statements. In the process of logical substantiation, evidence-based judgment, the selection of facts and examples plays an important role. It is important that the facts and examples be sufficiently typical, convincing, reveal the phenomena systematically and comprehensively. For example, in a public speech, the speaker used the results of the latest sociological survey public opinion about the popularity of the government's economic policy and used only part of the data obtained, which characterize the opinion of the intelligentsia. It is clear that this will not be a complete and convincing approach to the analysis of the population's public opinion about the government's economic policy.

3. Scheme of public speaking

What exactly is the content of a public speech? What is needed for this? An analysis of the public speaking of the most talented speakers shows that the ability to improvise, erudition and many other virtues of a speaker are just prerequisites for oratorical success, which may not take place if labor is not invested in developing the content of a public speech. In general, the development of the content of a public speech begins with understanding and clarifying the topic, isolating the main - central idea, clarifying the main provisions and concepts, formulating the main thesis and supporting its arguments.

It would be useful to know and use classical scheme oratory. It is based on 5 steps:

1. Selection required material, content of public speaking.

2. Drawing up a plan, distribution of the collected material in the required logical sequence.

3. Literary processing of speech, saturation of its content.

4. Learning, memorizing the text of speech.

5. Pronunciation of speech with appropriate intonation, facial expressions, gestures.

As you can see, classical rhetoric is exclusively great importance attaches to the preparation of a public speech. At least 4 out of 5 stages in the speaker's activity are devoted to preparing a speech. The Greeks said that the speeches of Demosthenes were saturated with the oil of the night lamp, by the light of which he prepared them. Yes, and he himself said about this: "I, the citizens of Athens, admit and will not deny that I thought over and learned my speech as much as possible."

Let us turn to some aspects, the conditions of oratory.

Creativity at the stage of preparation of the content of public speaking.

1. The first condition for the successful selection and selection of the content of a public speech is the selection of a topic. It is important that the topic is close to you, interesting and personally significant to you.

2. Regularity and systematic work on the preparation of the presentation material.

3. Drawing up a list of references on the topic of the upcoming public speech. work with this literature. Use of additional reference information.

4. Awareness of the latest literature, the latest newspaper publications, especially polemical articles, which, one way or another, are related to the topic of your speech.

5. Hard work on the compositional and stylistic construction of a public speech, the logic of the presentation of the material and directly speech culture.

After the collection of the necessary material for a public speech is completed, the material is logically built, meticulously edited, you can put the text in a box desk and speak out on the basis of short plan or theses. And in no case do not consider that the work you have done is in vain. As even experienced speakers say, work invisible to anyone is the basis of the lecturer's confidence. The size of his excitement is inversely proportional to the labor expended.

4. Heuristic rhetoric

One of the promising areas of modern rhetoric is heuristic rhetoric. It relies on heuristic techniques, methods for generating new ideas aimed at rhetorical invention, that is, the invention of the subject of speech, its content, forms and methods of speech activity. Heuristic rhetoric pays great attention to the search for arguments to prove or refute the theses, premises, conclusions and generalizations that make up the speech. Probably, over time, heuristic rhetoric can be developed as an independent academic subject, and due attention will be paid to its study both in secondary and higher educational institutions.

Heuristic prescriptions are good in that they give scope to creative search, invention, generating ideas about any object, subject, event, at the same time they are guided by a systematic, orderly approach and set not just any, but the most productive strategies for creative search for ideas. For example, you need to describe some object.

How to describe an object.

1. What are the essential characteristics of the object (size, shape, properties)?

2. What is its structure (the composition of their elements, connections, relationships)?

3. How does this object differ from similar, close objects?

4. What is the history of the appearance of this object?

5. What is the purpose of the object?

6. Who uses the facility most often?

7. What can the facility be most effectively used for?

How to describe an event.

1. Who (what), when, why, for what purpose did something?

2. What are the conditions, circumstances of the event?

3. How can an event be qualified?

4. What are the similarities and differences from similar events?

5. From what source do you know about the event? Is he reliable?

6. Could the event have been changed or avoided?

7. What are the possible consequences of this event?

Heuristic rhetoric does not end with heuristic prescriptive rules. Most likely, it starts with them. Therefore, the ideas of heuristic rhetoric are very important for any genre of business communication.

5. Stylistic and lexical devices in publicperformance

For modern oratorical speech, a combination of logical-analytical and emotional-figurative language means is characteristic. The practice of the best speakers shows that a dry business speech, which boils down to the transfer of "naked" information to a modern, well-informed audience, as a rule, remains unattended, and often causes boredom and even irritation.

Therefore, a novice speaker needs to master the techniques of stylistic syntax, which can achieve expressiveness, emotionality of public speaking.

Reception of gradation - an increase in the semantic and emotional significance of the word. Gradation allows you to strengthen, give them emotional expressiveness to a phrase, a formulated thought.

The technique of inversion is a speech turnover, which, as it were, deploys the usual, generally accepted train of thought and expressions to the diametrically opposite one.

Acceptance of an appeal to one's own thoughts, reflections, doubts, which allow creating a situation of trusting communication with the audience.

The specificity of oral speech is manifested in the construction of phrases and whole sentences. It is believed that in public speaking, preference should be given to shorter sentences, they are better perceived by ear and remembered. In addition, a short sentence allows for a more variant approach to changing intonation.

Among the techniques of oratory, which significantly increase its effectiveness and persuasiveness, lexical techniques should be highlighted. In almost all guides to oratory, among lexical devices, it is recommended to use the so-called paths.

Tropes are speech turns and individual words used in figurative meaning which allow to achieve the necessary emotional expressiveness and figurativeness. Tropes include comparisons, metaphors, epithets, hyperbole.

Comparison is one of the most frequently used techniques, which has great persuasive power, stimulates associative and figurative thinking in the audience, and thus allows the speaker to achieve the desired effect.

Metaphor is the transfer of the name of one object to another, it is the verbal convergence of 2 phenomena by similarity or contrast. For example: "The locomotive of history cannot be stopped..."

An epithet is a figurative definition of an object, a phenomenon that reveals its essence. For example: "A student is not a vessel to be filled with knowledge, but a torch to be lit!.."

Allegory allegorically depicts something. For example: “Once a passer-by asked the builder: “What are you doing?” He thought and answered: “Don’t you see? I drive stones." The second builder answered the same question: "I earn money!"

Hyperbole is a kind of trope, consisting in a deliberate exaggeration of the properties, qualities of objects and phenomena. For example: "A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper."

Speaking about the culture of oratory, its diversity, one cannot but pay attention to the use of catchwords, proverbs, sayings. It is important that they be unexpected, but appropriately said.

A high level of speech culture also implies continuous self-improvement of speech technology. In this regard, you should pay attention to the following features of your own speech:

Diction is the clarity and clarity of pronunciation of phrases, words and individual sounds. A high level of oratory is characterized by the fact that it is easy to listen to, he does not have tongue twisters, "swallowing" individual syllables and sounds. Good diction is free from lisping, nasality and stuttering.

The strength of the voice should be commensurate with the size of the audience in which the speech is made, while taking into account those tasks that the speaker strives to achieve with his oratorical skills. The power of a voice is not only its loudness,

But also the power of influence on the psyche: will, feelings, consciousness of listeners.

The rate of speech - the number of words spoken per minute, it can vary greatly. Most often, however, public speaking begins at a slow pace. For the purposes of dramatization, the tempo is increased or, conversely, reduced. It is generally accepted that the most optimal rate of public speaking is 120 words per minute.

The flight of the voice is the duration of the sound of individual phrases, words and sounds. When the sound is saturated with intonations, the words are pronounced with a certain emotional coloring, clearly, clearly and strongly enough, then the speaker's speech seems to hang in the air. It reaches the farthest corners of the audience.

A typical mistake of many speakers is the inability to clearly and correctly pronounce individual sounds of speech. To overcome this shortcoming, as well as improve the technique of speech, it is recommended:

Use tongue twisters, at first they should be pronounced slowly, gradually increasing the pace.

The most important indicator of the speaker's speech culture is a rich vocabulary, accuracy and figurativeness of phrases and expressions, this teaching is concise and simple to formulate one's thought.

So, a speaker with a high culture of speech is rich vocabulary, semantic accuracy of expression, compliance with language norms of pronunciation, figurativeness and accuracy of word usage.

Conclusion

Whether the public speaking achieves the goal, whether the speaker has coped with his tasks, depends largely on whether he owns oratory. An analysis of the public speaking of the most talented speakers shows that the ability to improvise, erudition and many other virtues of a speaker are just prerequisites for oratorical success, which may not take place if labor is not invested in developing the content of a public speech. In general, the development of the content of a public speech begins with understanding and clarifying the topic, isolating the main - central idea, clarifying the main provisions and concepts, formulating the main thesis and supporting its arguments.

Mastering the methods of public speaking is a necessary component of oratory.

Bibliography

1. Andreev V.I. The art of speaking. M., 2001

2. Vvedenskaya M.A., Pavlova L.G. Culture and art of speech. Rostov-on-3. Don: Phoenix, 1995

4. Nozhin E.A. Skill in oral presentation. M: Knowledge, 1989

5. Mikhailichenko N.A. Rhetoric. M: New school, 1994

6. Ruzavin G.I. Methodological problems of argumentation. M., 1997

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Features of public speech

There are some psychological features of public speaking. They lie in the communication between the speaker and the audience, stem from the dialogue between them. The relationship of the two sides of communication is objective - subjective, acts as a joint activity or cooperation.

The speech of the speaker has a number of features:

Audience feedback. During the speech, the speaker can see the reaction of people to his words, observe the change in the mood of the public. Separate words, questions, facial expressions of listeners help to understand their mood and desire. Thanks to the presence of feedback, it is possible to correct your speech. She transforms the monologue into a dialogue, establishes a connection with the public.
Oral speech. Features of oral public speech are to establish a lively dialogue between the participants. The oral form of communication has a goal in the form of a specific interlocutor and is completely dependent on him. An important point speeches is the organization of speech for the most easy understanding and perception. Oral public speaking is very effective, because, unlike written, it absorbs up to 90% of the information.
Communication of literature and oral speech. Before the speech, the speaker prepares and thinks over his speech, using scientific, artistic or journalistic literature. Already in front of the public, he transforms the prepared text into an interesting and vivid speech that anyone can understand. Only in the course of a live performance, the speaker builds sentences, taking into account the reaction of others, thereby moving from a book text to a conversational style.
Means of communication. In oratory, different methods of influence and means of communication between participants are used. These are verbal and non-verbal means: facial expressions, gestures, intonation. An important role is played by the culture of public speech and the observance of ethics.

Requirements and technology of public speaking

In order to be able to speak in different speech genres, you must first learn how to prepare texts in various styles. Various genres of public speaking involve the use of various techniques and rules to influence the audience.

General techniques and requirements for public speaking:

The beginning of the speech is carefully thought out and prepared. An unsuccessfully started dialogue can spoil the image of the speaker.
Drama. The presence of drama is important in any speech genre. It helps to interest the public through a dispute or conflict, is used in life stories, descriptions of incidents, tragedies.
Emotionality in public speech is considered a prerequisite for speaking. The audience should feel not the indifference of the speaker to the topic of the speech, his attitude and experience. Monotonous dialogue without expressing emotions will not evoke a proper response from the audience.
Summary thoughts. Short, clear speech is perceived by the listeners better, inspires more confidence. To keep within the time allotted for the speech, you need to learn how to speak briefly. No wonder they say: "Brevity is the sister of talent."
Conversational style of speech. Public speaking requirements include speaking style. It should be conversational, look like a conversation between people. The conversational style of speech makes it easier to assimilate information, draw attention to the topic. You can not use a lot of foreign, scientific terms, incomprehensible words are replaced by understandable ones.
The preparation for the end of the performance is as thorough as for the beginning. The final stage of the speech should attract attention with bright and understandable phrases. The final words need to be rehearsed to establish the correct intonation of the voice and tone.

The Public Speaking Technique includes 12 consecutive steps necessary to achieve best result in oratory. It will be needed to write the correct speech and successfully interpret it.

Public speaking technology:

Determine the purpose of the speech.
We study the composition of the audience.
We create an image for the performance.
We determine the role for the performance (idol, owner, patron, good, evil).
We write a speech.
We check it according to the rules for writing a public text, compliance with moral requirements.
We build speech according to the rules of visual, kinetic, auditory perception.
If necessary, we prepare the venue for the performance.
We are looking forward to a successful performance.
The performance itself.
We listen to criticism.
We follow the reaction of the public, we analyze the impression made.

Having spoken to the public, we do not dwell on the result obtained, we perform an analysis of the performance. The technique of public speaking includes the following necessary speech analysis: text structure, pronunciation tone, intonation, speech structure, public interest in the speaker.

The analysis is necessary for further correction of speech or behavioral errors, as well as for honing skills.

Top 10 Beginner Speaker Mistakes

The art of public speaking lies in learning common mistakes other masters of eloquence. Over the centuries of eloquence, experts have studied common public speaking mistakes experienced and novice speakers. Learning to speak professionally using the techniques and advice of experienced people is much more than going through a long path of trial and error on your own.

There are 10 mistakes of a novice speaker:

The difference between intonation and tone of speech with its content.
It is unacceptable to use an excuse, it looks unprofessional.
Don't apologize to the public.
Inappropriate expression.
Wrong choice of words and particles "not".
Boring monologue without the presence of humor.
The omniscient kind of speaker, arrogance.
Lots of unnecessary fussy movements around the stage.
Monotonous non-emotional speech.
Incorrectly spaced pauses in a sentence.

In order to better study the art of public speech for a novice speaker, the works of the following authors will be useful:

Dale Carnegie How to Build Self-Confidence and Influence People by Speaking in Public.

Dale Carnegie published the book in 1956. It has become an addition to published works on the skill of public speaking. The book contains techniques, rules, exercises for successful professional public speaking. Dale Carnegie is an American writer, a connoisseur of eloquence, his book is useful for both a beginner and an experienced speaker.

Igor Rodchenko "Master of the word".

Igor Rodchenko is a specialist in speech communications, director of a well-known training speech company, conducts public speaking training, is the head of the stage speech and rhetoric department at St. Petersburg University. The book master of the word. The Mastery of Public Speaking” by Igor Rodchenko contains the main questions on the psychology of public speaking, as well as the interaction of communication participants and the impact on the audience.

Ivanova Svetlana "Specificity of public speech".

In her book, Ivanova S. F. reveals issues in communication between the public and the speaker, describes the strategy, speech techniques, and its linguistic means. The book will help you learn how to speak correctly, behave in front of an audience, reveals the features of speaking in public.

The art of public speaking can come in handy at any time, even if it is not related to your professional activities. Every day we tell each other some stories or try to convince someone of something. The ability to competently and clearly express your thoughts and desires suggests that you are a developed and sociable person who is interesting to listen to.

Here are a few tips for successful public speaking. They will help make your speech interesting and engaging.

1. Preparation of speech

As you know, all good improvisations are carefully prepared in advance. A speech without prior preparation, especially for a novice speaker, will almost certainly be a failure. Remember Mark Twain's aphorism: "It takes more than three weeks to prepare a good short impromptu speech."

First, make a "frame" or "skeleton" of the future public speaking:

Determine the motivation for people to listen to your speech. What do they need it for? What useful or interesting things will they learn for themselves?
Highlight the main idea of your speech.
Separate your subheadings by breaking your idea down into several component parts.
Determine keywords, which you will repeat several times so that those present will better remember what you are telling them about.
Think carefully about the plan and structure of the future speech. It should include an introduction, body and conclusions (end)

Having prepared the "skeleton", begin to build up "muscles" on it.

Find vivid examples "from life", from history, literature that you use in the process of speaking.
Prepare the necessary diagrams, illustrations, graphs for visual consolidation of information.
Determine the moment during the speech when you turn to the audience with a question, asking them to name something, recount - this will help those present to concentrate on the discussion of the topic and significantly increase the efficiency of the perception of your material.
Write the full text. Pay special attention to its beginning and end.

A feature of the introduction is that the audience will very quickly make an impression of you, and this impression will dominate throughout the speech. If you make mistakes in the introductory part, it will be difficult to correct them. It is important from the very beginning to interest the public in the success of your first shot. To do this, in the introductory part, you can use any witty joke, tell interesting fact or recall an outstanding historical event, necessarily linking them to the topic of the speech.

The final part of the public speech provides for summing up. At the end, you need to recall the key issues raised in the speech, be sure to repeat all the main ideas. The successful construction of the last phrases, enhanced by their emotionality and expressiveness, will not only cause applause from the audience, but also turn them into your adherents.

Your main controller is time. The audience can listen attentively and perceive your ideas only for a limited period due to psycho-physiological reasons (usually no more than 15-20 minutes, then the audience's attention begins to weaken). Short, clear, understandable, persuasive and accessible phrases are expected from you. Follow Chekhov's: "Brevity is the sister of talent." Consider the pace of your speech. The most favorable rate for comprehension is approximately 100 words per minute. When planning your presentation, be sure to take into account the time that will need to be spent answering questions.

It is advisable to know in advance who you will have to speak to: the size of the audience, its interests, views, what it expects from the speaker, what kind of reaction you need to get from it. Depending on these indicators, adjust the individual points of your speech. You need to be on the same cultural level with the audience, communicate in its language, only in this case you can count on establishing psychological contact between the speaker and the audience. You should not touch on topics that are beyond the understanding of the audience.

Check the dictionaries for the meanings of the buzzwords you use. Find out the correct pronunciation. Language mistakes can cause ridicule in your address and ruin the whole performance, no matter how brilliant it may be in content.

When a speech is prepared, it is better to write down its main provisions or theses on small cards. Arrange them in sequence. These cards are very convenient to use during the performance. If this is not a two or three hour report, then it is not recommended to read the text, it is advisable to learn it by heart and pronounce it from memory, only looking at your notes from time to time.

Say the speech aloud several times (preferably in front of a mirror) to get used to the text and feel all the nuances well. For polishing phrases, intonation, facial expressions, it is desirable to work with a tape recorder or video camera. Such pre-training will reduce your anxiety, make you feel confident and greatly increase the likelihood of success in public speaking.

2. Place of public speaking

A pulpit or a podium, a stage or a balcony, in general, any elevation above the floor level always causes fear in people who do not have sufficient experience in public speaking. E. Morin called it "stage fright", and Mark Twain recommended to those who are afraid of performance: "Calm down, because the public still expects nothing from you" . It is better to set yourself up as if you first of all want to tell yourself something interesting, at the same time familiarizing everyone present with it.

Before speaking, it is very important to study the room in order to establish from which side the audience will look at you. When choosing a place, consider your height. You need to make sure everyone can see you. If you need to speak behind the podium, then if you are not tall, make sure that a strong stand is placed under the podium. The "talking head" looks comical and will not be able to hold the attention of the audience for a long time. It is necessary to ensure that the speaker is visible to the chest.

If you have to sit during public speaking, check the comfort of your seat. Sitting at the table, you can not slouch and put your hands on it; sitting in a chair, you can’t lean on the armrests and back, cross your legs, clasp your hands on your knees, try to sit on the edge of the chair, leaning forward slightly with your legs pushed back slightly and your heels pressed to the floor; it is necessary to sit straight, freely, radiating openness and goodwill; look people in the eyes, follow their emotions, gestures and facial expressions, demonstrate care and understanding with all your appearance.

3. Clothing

Speaking in front of a large audience is like a performance, so the speaker's clothing is of great importance. During a public speech, the speaker has to sit at a table, stand on a high pulpit, behind a podium, etc. Given this, pants and skirts should be long enough, socks should be high, and shoes should be in perfect order.

Wear things that you feel comfortable in and that don't distract you with their inconvenience. You should never have the thought: “How does it sit on me?”. It is better not to use completely new things that you wear for the first time. Clothes and shoes should not give you internal discomfort and distract your attention.

The universal rule for successful public speaking is not to allow an imbalance between what you say and how you look. In formal occasions, it is better to use a medium-dark suit, a white or ivory-colored loose shirt and an elegant expressive tie. Contrasting colors and a good suit will help create a positive attitude towards you and contribute to the success of public speaking. The tie should not have a bright pattern, so as not to distract attention from the face, however, it should not be one-color. Ties made of matte fabric, dark blue, red wine, burgundy with a barely noticeable pattern are best suited. The length of the tie should be such that its end barely covers the buckle on the waist belt.

If your jacket has two buttons, you need to fasten only the top, if three - only the middle one. Unless there is a very great need, you should not wear glasses when speaking in public, jewelry is also not needed.

If the speaker is a woman, her clothes should have long sleeves, the length of the skirt should be medium (to the middle of the knee), it should not be too narrow. Regarding colors, here the requirements are much more liberal than for men: the color just has to go to a woman. Women should also avoid bright massive jewelry. Shoes are best in dark colors with inconspicuous or solid bows; stockings of the same color as the shoes. Glasses should have a simple design and frames to match the hair color.

When performing in an informal setting (friendly parties, etc.), clothing requirements do not play a big role. You can dress however you like, but remember that if your appearance there will be some eclectic detail that catches the eye (a bright brooch, a noisy acid-colored tie, an original style of a suit with whimsical patterns), then it will distract attention from the content of your words. The public will remember exactly it and will not pay attention to what you said.

4. Successful public speaking - a few secrets

When you enter the classroom, move confidently, do not scurry or make fussy movements. Walk with your usual gait, this will convince those present that you are not worried and are not in a hurry. When you are introduced, stand up, be sure to give the audience a slight smile and make direct eye contact with the audience.

In order to show your importance and earn the respect of the audience, you need to control the maximum allowable space. Don't try to be a small person and don't hide somewhere in the corner of the stage. Be sure to take a seat in the center, or at least direct your gaze to the center from time to time. Straighten your shoulders, raise your head and lean forward a little, demonstrating something like a bow to the audience, you can repeat this gesture several times later.

When you get up on the podium, stage, rostrum or take another place to speak, do not rush to start talking right away. Be sure to take a break. You can take every opportunity - ask for a glass of water, lay out the papers, move something. Use the pause for as long as you feel necessary to prepare yourself psychologically and set up the audience to communicate with you. If you are very nervous, take a few deep breaths in and out before speaking. A pause will also help you to explore the space around you in a few seconds, to figure out how you will use it. Remember the theatrical axiom: the more talented the actor, the longer he can pause.

Next, do not just take in your eyes, but carefully examine the hall, take a closer look at the entire audience. Stop looking at a few of those present who will become visual points of support, beacons in your speech. Then, if necessary, you can change them. Try to give your personal attention as much as possible more people, but be sure to take a look around the entire space of the hall - from left to right, from the first to the last row. Do not linger long in the back rows and again turn your eyes to the front seats. Remember that they are always occupied by the most interested people, in their eyes you will find support for yourself. Having fixed for yourself a few of these visual "anchors", start talking.

Your facial expressions and gestures give a person much more impressions than anything you say. With gestures, you will focus on the importance of information. When gesticulating, there are three rules: first, do not put your hands in your pockets; second - do not hide them behind your back; third - do not occupy them with foreign objects. Hands are helpers that should always be free and ready to unite with your thoughts.

You can not use "defensive" or "defensive" body movements, for example, crossing the arms over the chest, laying them behind the back. Crossing the arms shows uncertainty about what the person is saying. It is best to take an open stance and show a smile from time to time. Constantly control your posture, keep your back straight, head up, move naturally.

When speaking in public, do not stand still like a monument and throw your head back, as this will repel the audience and delay the flow of psychological energy that should dynamically affect those present. Be sure to move. You need to show yourself alive, energetic, dynamic. Your movements should be short, precise and convincing. When you want to emphasize something, move your body towards the audience or use the gesture of bringing your body closer to those present. If there is an opportunity to get closer to the audience, then do it when you want to tell her something important to convey and convince those present that you are right.

Maintain eye contact with your audience at all times. An experienced speaker always keeps an eye on the attention of the audience, looking from the front rows to the back. If you use notes, then do it very carefully: look down quickly and briefly at the text and look up again, transferring all attention back to the audience.

Consider the cultural, national, religious and other characteristics of the audience. For example, in the Chinese and Japanese, your open eye contact can cause negative feelings, since this is not accepted in Eastern cultures. Among the Caucasian peoples, a direct, firm look into the eyes of a man is perceived as a challenge to a duel, etc. Also, with great care, you need to use jokes on national or religious topics.

You should not have a frozen, motionless expression on your face. Otherwise, you will cause indifference and boredom from the public. The basis of your attractiveness as a speaker is a slight pleasant smile. Try to accompany the transition to each key topic with a special change in the face: slightly raise your eyebrows or move your eyes, use slow head turns. If you are sitting, include your hands in business: translate something or change their position a little. While sitting, emphasize the freedom of your posture at all times.

Repeated repetition of simple expressive phrases, vivid phrases contributes to the success of public speaking. However, try to avoid inappropriate and untimely use of them. The content of the phrases should not be allowed to be far from the thoughts that need to be conveyed to the audience.

Do not show superiority or frivolity when communicating with the audience, do not broadcast "down" in a mentoring tone. Be very serious about formulating answers to the questions posed - the answers provide an opportunity to once again emphasize the main points of your speech. Avoid irritation, hostility, or sarcasm, even if the questions are uncomfortable for you. Much better - calmness, goodwill and light humor.

Take philosophically any surprises and awkwardness - a microphone breakage, a glass of water falling on the floor, a sudden pause, etc. You can’t betray your confusion and show a negative attitude towards negative moments that arose by chance or turned out to be “homemade” by your ill-wishers. It is best to respond to this with humor, to beat it in a way that is beneficial to you. The speaker must control the situation, show that all this does not interfere with him, and troubles do not unsettle him.

If the speech is interrupted by applause, you must wait until they end and only then continue - so that the beginning of your next phrase is heard by everyone. Also remember that there is a difference between applause and applause. The speech must end before tired and irritated listeners begin to “slam” the speaker.

Concluding the speech, you need to look into the eyes of the audience and say something pleasant, demonstrating your satisfaction from communicating with the audience. Such a positive information impulse in the final will remain in the memory of people, in their perception of your public speech.

The speaker should try to convince the audience of the validity of the statements put forward by him, giving undeniable arguments, arguing his statements. Argument - a logical argument that serves as the basis of evidence. The truth of the arguments has been tested and proven by practice, therefore, argumentation - bringing such arguments in favor of a particular statement - convinces listeners of the truth of the statements made by the speaker.

Arguments are different, in rhetoric the following types are considered:

I. Arguments to the merits of the case. Such arguments are facts obtained as a result of observation, as well as documents, statistical and digital material, etc.

II. Arguments to a person, they are designed to influence listeners emotionally and in oratory practice are used no less than arguments to the merits of the case. Arguments to a person are diverse, to name just a few of them: 1) an argument to authority (in this case, the speaker refers to the opinions of prominent figures, scientists, writers, whose position coincides with the position of the speaker); 2) an argument to the public (the speaker tries to attract listeners to his side and resist opponents in such a way, which often happens at rallies, in court); 3) an argument to the individual (replacing the subject of discussion, the speaker tries to set the audience against opponents, exposing them in a negative light); 4) an argument for vanity (praise to opponents in order to soften their confrontation); 5) an argument for pity (the desire to arouse in opponents a feeling of pity, compassion and thereby win them over to their side).

As you can see, arguments to a person are far from always correct, so we will not recommend modern speakers to use them. The only exception is the argument for authority, often used in scientific reports, academic speeches. However, even in this case, it should be borne in mind that not all statements of authoritative people can be unconditionally recognized as true. Appealing to them, the speaker must be very careful.

Monologue and dialogue in public speaking

Depending on whether one speaker makes a speech or two (several persons) participate in a conversation (discussion), we are talking about a monologue (a speech by one) and a dialogue (Greek. dialogos- a conversation between two or more people). The term polylogue is also known (Greek. poly- many), which is used when they want to emphasize that many people are taking part in a conversation.

In rhetoric, a monologue is defined as a special form of oral speech, which is a detailed statement of one person, completed in a semantic and compositional sense, where all linguistic means are subordinate to the expression of the main idea, the achievement of the main goal of the speaker. The monologue is characterized by unidirectionality, as the speaker addresses the audience, speaks for her. All public speaking is monologue in nature. These include: 1) academic speech (university lecture, scientific report, review, scientific report, popular science lecture); 2) court speech (prosecutor's, lawyer's); 3) socio-political speech (speeches by public figures at congresses, summits, conferences, meetings; parliamentary, rally and diplomatic speeches, political review and political commentary); 4) social and everyday speech (anniversary, greeting, feast, funeral) and 5) spiritual speech (official, church, sermon) 24 .

All types of public speaking are distinguished by the specifics of an oratory monologue. The speaker not only addresses the audience, he seems to be talking to them. And they can mentally agree with the speaker or object to him. The speaker feels this reaction of the public and draws conclusions for himself. There is a semblance of a dialogue, only the second party does not say his lines aloud, but this does not interfere with two-way communication. All this gives grounds to call the oratorical monologue special, addressed to the audience and calculated on their lively reaction. In this sense, one speaks of the dialogic nature of oratorical speeches.

Disputes, discussions, various conversations have always been and remain truly dialogic. Rhetoric offers such a classification: 1) a casual conversation with well-known, close people; 2) the first conversation when meeting; 3) a business conversation, which is represented by different types: a) a conversation of equal partners, b) a conversation between a boss and a subordinate; c) a conversation about the cooperation of two (several) representatives of different parties; 4) table conversation (of varying degrees of formality, often with the host).

The typology of public speaking and conversations allows you to get a clear idea of their content and predict the speech behavior of speakers. This is the focus of the rhetoric textbooks we have referred to. We have to dwell on more important issues that make up the foundations of oratory.