Difference between Athens and Sparta. Greek polis

Athens was the main city of Attica, an area located in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. The population of Attica gradually united around Athens. This area was rich in minerals (clay, marble, silver), but agriculture could be practiced only in small and few valleys.

The main sources of strength and wealth of this policy were trade and shipbuilding. A large port city with a convenient harbor (it was called Piraeus) quickly turned into an economic, commercial and cultural center. The Athenians, having created the most powerful fleet in Hellas, actively traded with the colonies, resold the goods received to other policies. In Athens, sciences and arts flourished, huge funds were spent on urban planning. In the 5th century BC. Acropolis began to be erected - the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture, the center of which was the famous Parthenon temple dedicated to Athena, the patroness of the city. The heyday of the ancient Greek theater is associated with Athens. Famous sculptors and writers flocked to Athens. The philosophers Plato and Aristotle established their schools there.

The political life of the policy developed along the path of democratization, through a sharp struggle with the tribal nobility. The first step towards the creation of Athenian democracy was the reforms of Solon, who was elected in 594 BC. archon (the highest governing body in Athens). The great legislator himself declared that the goal of his reforms was the reconciliation of the warring factions that had developed among the free population. First of all, he banned debt slavery for the Athenians and declared the former debts of the poor invalid, thus returning them to the status of full citizens. Solon strengthened private property by allowing the purchase, sale and division of land. The political rights of citizens depended not on birth, but on property status. The poorest could only elect members of the popular assembly, but not be elected. Wealthy people, who had full rights, were entrusted with rather heavy, costly duties: they had to build ships, organize public holidays and spectacles. Under Solon, the role of the popular assembly increased.

Athenian democracy finally took shape by the middle of the 5th century. BC, when the prominent politicians Ephialp and Pericles improved the laws of Solon, strengthening the position of the demos: now all citizens of the policy have acquired the right to be elected to the highest positions (except for the position of military leader), “with us, each person individually can manifest himself as a self-sufficient personality in the most diverse aspects of life ”(from the speech of Pericles about Athens, delivered in 431 BC).

The People's Assembly became the supreme body of power and received the broadest powers: it passed laws, decided questions about war and peace, concluded and terminated agreements with other policies, elected officials and checked their work. At meetings, and they were held 40 times a year, all issues were carefully discussed, and everyone had the right to express their point of view. No less important was the fact that all officials were elected by vote or by lot and were accountable and replaceable. As we can see, many of the principles of democracy, developed 25 centuries ago, continue to operate in our time, have become a kind of eternal norms for the life of a society that deserves the name civil.

This policy was located in the south of the Peloponnesian peninsula, in the fertile valley of the river Evros. The Spartan state was formed around the ninth century. BC. and at first consisted of five settlements of the Greek Dorians. The further life of the policy proceeded in continuous wars with neighboring communities. The Spartans seized their lands, cattle, and turned the population into helot slaves. In addition to the helots, the perieks living in the area also worked for the Spartans, who were personally free, but paid tribute. According to legend, all life in Sparta was built on the basis of ancient laws introduced by the legendary king Lycurgus.

The Spartans themselves (full-fledged residents of Sparta) were only warriors. None of them was engaged in productive labor: the fields of the Spartans were cultivated by helots. Only the perieks could trade; for the Spartans, this occupation was forbidden, as was the craft. As a result, Sparta remained an agricultural policy with a closed economy, in which monetary relations could not develop.

In Sparta, elements of the life of an archaic tribal community were preserved. Private ownership of land was not allowed. The land was divided into equal plots, which were considered the property of the community and were not subject to sale. Helot slaves, as historians suggest, also belonged to the state, and not to individual citizens of Sparta.

In addition, the principle of equalization dominated the policy, which was the pride of the Spartans, who called themselves a "community of equals." “What is the point of striving for wealth where, with its establishments on equal contributions to dinner, on the same way of life for all, the legislator has stopped any desire for money for the sake of a pleasant life” (Greek historian Xenophon about Sparta, 430th - 353 BC. e.).

The Spartans lived in the same humble dwellings, wore the same simple clothes, devoid of decorations, gold and silver coins were withdrawn from circulation. Instead of them, iron bars were in circulation. The legendary king Lycurgus introduced joint meals, for the arrangement of which everyone had to contribute their share (food and money). Infants with physical disabilities were destroyed. Boys from 7 to 20 years old received a rather tough social education. Having reached the age of majority, they were enrolled in the army and served until old age. The harsh, strict life of Sparta resembled a barracks. And this is natural: everything pursued one goal - to make courageous and hardy warriors out of the Spartans.

The goals of the paramilitary state corresponded and political system Sparta. At the head were two kings who acted as commanders, judges and priests, as well as a council of elders, consisting of representatives of noble families aged at least 60 years, and ephors, a kind of controlling body. Unlike the elders, kings were not elected. It was a hereditary title. The kings had great privileges, but could not make decisions without the approval of the council of elders, which, in turn, had to rely on the opinion of the people's assembly. But the elements of democracy were not developed in Sparta: the popular assembly, although formally considered the highest body, did not have much influence on political life. Unlike Athens, at the meetings the Spartans did not make speeches, did not prove their point of view, but shouted their approval and disapproval of the decision. The system of Sparta can be called oligarchic. The invariability of the system and the archaism of customs were maintained through strict isolation from other states. The historian Xenophon wrote that the Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, so that citizens would not become infected with frivolity from strangers.

The struggle for leadership

The forces of Athens and Sparta were especially strengthened during the era of wars with Persia. While many city-states of Greece submitted to the conquerors, these two policies led the fight against the seemingly invincible army of King Xerxes and defended the independence of the country.

In 478, Athens formed the Delian Maritime Union of Equal Policies, which soon turned into the Athenian maritime power. Athens, violating the principles of autarchy, began to interfere in the internal affairs of its allies, managed their finances, tried to establish their own laws on the territory of other policies, i.e. pursued a real great-power policy. The Athenian state at the time of its heyday was a very significant force: it included about 250 policies. The rise of Athens, their claims to be the center of ancient Greek civilization, were perceived by Sparta as a challenge, in contrast, the Peloponnesian Union was created. He was joined by small, poor policies, and rich, economically advanced Corinth and Megara, who were also concerned about the growing influence of Athens.

In 431 BC between the two alliances began a cruel, long war (27 years), which engulfed the whole of Greece. At first, the advantage was on the side of Sparta, and the decisive role here was played not only by the fact that she had at her disposal an excellently trained, disciplined army. Sparta concluded an agreement with her recent opponents, the Persians, and received large financial assistance from them, promising to give up the Greek cities in Asia Minor for this. With Persian gold, the Spartans built their fleet and defeated the naval forces of Athens. In 404 BC Athens, besieged by the Spartans, was forced to surrender.

The victory of Sparta over Athens meant, in essence, the victory of the oligarchy over democracy, which had been established by that time in most policies. True, the success of Sparta was short-lived. Athens created a second maritime union. Thebes, a rich and powerful policy, also fought against the Spartans. In 317 BC The Theban army defeated the Spartan one. The Peloponnesian League collapsed. Several regions that had long belonged to her separated from Sparta, and now her possessions were again limited to Laconia.

Sparta, thus, was taken out of the game for hegemony, but the attempts of Thebes, and then Athens, to realize their great power plans did not lead to any results.

The Crisis of the Polis and the Crisis of Civilization

The defeat of Sparta restored democracy in the Greek policies, returned their independence, but the return to the old order of things was only an appearance. The long bloody Peloponnesian wars weakened not only Sparta, but also the victorious policies, and eventually the whole of Greece. But most importantly, even in the era of the Peloponnesian Wars, the polis enters a state of crisis.

4th century BC. - this is the finale of classical Greece, its polis system, the beginning of the end of the ancient Greek civilization as a whole.

The first attempts to understand the laws of nature were, of course, imperfect in terms of modern science, but something else is important: theories of the structure of the world were created not on the basis of myths, but on the basis of scientific knowledge.

Maria NIKOLAEVA, 10th grade student of the gymnasium "Logos", Dmitrov, Moscow region

general characteristics

Historically, Sparta was the first and militarily strongest ancient Greek city. "... In the history of ancient Greece, Sparta, despite all its conservatism, played a very significant role and therefore rightfully occupies one of the most important places." This is public education(and Sparta, strictly speaking, is not quite a city, but a group of villages united in a community of Spartans) arose shortly after the conquest of the Peloponnese by the Dorian barbarians, who, due to the impossibility of further advance to the south, settled on the southern coast of mainland Greece (in Laconia). Territory of Lacedaemon (this is the common name for everything spartan state in antiquity) stretched from the southern borders of the Arad Highlands to the capes Tenar and Malea on the southern coast of the Peloponnese. The Spartans did not immediately manage to take these lands under full control, during the 9th - first half of the 7th century. BC. they had to wage a stubborn struggle with the local tribes. Someone voluntarily went under the rule of the Spartans, for which he received some privileges (future perieks), those who were subjected by force were enslaved and turned into helots. Naturally, it was the Dorian, and not the Achaean influence that became the determining factor in the development of Sparta.

In Athens, the polis system took shape later than in various areas of the Peloponnese, the emergence of statehood here is attributed to the VIII - VII centuries. BC. A significant difference in the formation of the polis system in Attica (the so-called central part of Greece, where Athens was located) is the minimal role of military conquests associated with the enslavement of neighboring tribes. The second important difference between Athens and the Peloponnesian states is the relatively large number of documents that speak of her ancient history, which gives scientists good opportunities to objectively judge the history of this policy. The Dorian invasion swept through these lands like a hurricane, but the Dorians themselves soon moved further south, only briefly staying in Attica. Therefore, in general, the former ethnic communities (Ionians and Pelasgians) were preserved here, in addition, some Achaean clans, ousted by the Dorians from the Peloponnese, found refuge here. The influence of the highly developed Achaean culture played an important role in the history of Athens, where the principles of humanism and democracy subsequently began to play a very important role.

social structure

The social structure of Sparta was distinguished by a high degree of isolation of social groups and minimal social mobility. The population here was divided into three large groups: citizens (Spartiates), perieks and helot slaves.

Citizens made up the Spartiate community. It was a very closed social group, in which outsiders were not allowed, and probably their number never exceeded 9 thousand people. Only men born in Sparta became members of the community, they all served in the army and could vote in the popular assembly. In addition, allotments-clairs with the helots who inhabited them were distributed among the members of the community, the number of these plots was constant (9000), they could not be divided between heirs, donated, sold or bequeathed. The situation was different in Athens, where the migration of the population within the polis was a common occurrence.

It is known that the Dorians “absolutely dominated” within the community, but there is evidence that one of the royal families of Sparta considered his dynasty to be Achaean in origin. In other words, it can be assumed that part of the Achaeans voluntarily joined the Spartan community (nevertheless, as already noted, this still did not play a significant role in the history of Sparta). It is worth saying that the influence of various Greek communities - Dorians or Achaeans - is a very important factor that determined the further development of these policies.

The community of Spartans is known as the "community of equals", which indicates that in Sparta there was an attempt to implement "proto-socialist ideas". This is partly true, but it is worth saying that Spartan society never tried to extend the organization model of the "community of equals" to the entire population. This fundamentally distinguishes the Spartans from the Athenians, for whom taking care of the demos has always been one of the most important tasks, it is worth remembering such prominent statesmen as Solon, Cleisthenes or Pericles, who often infringed on the interests of the nobility in order to protect the interests of the demos. The Spartan elite never considered that they should take care of the welfare of the perieks or helots.

The second important social group was the perieks (literally - "living around"), they were not full citizens, but nevertheless they had some rights. The very status of the Perieki communities was something like a sign of gratitude to the Spartans for the population that voluntarily accepted their power. It was granted to some communities in the badlands of Laconia and to several seaside settlements in Messenia. The difference between the perieks and the helot slaves was huge, because the perieks were assigned the right of private property, which neither the helots nor the Spartans had, all of whose property was considered state property. In this sense, the Perieki are closest to the Athenians with their entrepreneurial spirit and respect for private property. The main occupations of the perieks were craft and trade, like the Spartans, they also had clerks (about 30,000) who were employed by helots. Despite the fact that the position of the perieks seems to be privileged, "in Sparta itself they were looked upon as 'second-class' people and were not allowed to participate in the affairs of the state."

The third social layer was occupied by helot slaves, who were the absolute majority of the population of Sparta. They inhabited allotments given to the Spartans and perieks (for each allotment there were several families of helots). The main task of the helots was to provide the "community of equals" with everything necessary, for the main task of the citizens was military service. It is worth saying that the owners of the helots were not like the Russian landowners of the times of serfdom. "... The usual norm ... of service ... was determined by law, and the Spartiate did not have the right to exceed it at his own discretion", the helots could use the surplus at their discretion. "... Unlike slaves of the usual or classical type, helots enjoyed quite a lot of economic independence." Of course, despite such a seemingly benign position of the helots, they often showed disobedience towards the Spartans, let's not forget that they were subjugated by Sparta, which did not even consider them to be people - bloody cryptia is worth mentioning. This could not affect the morals of the Spartans: "... This fact determined the whole way of life of Sparta, her constant readiness for hostilities, for the conquest of the recalcitrant." Here you can see the following important difference between Sparta and Athens - the Peloponnesian policy is characterized by a particularly strong internal tension.

It should also be noted that the helots, like the land they cultivated, were the property of the state, which seriously distinguishes Sparta from the humanistic Athens, which proclaimed the freedom of the individual.

As for the Athenian policy, it initially corresponded to the usual for ancient Greece after the decomposition of the tribal system, the division into eupatrid aristocrats, artisans-demiurges and commoners-gomors (demos), who were not equal in rights among themselves. Here, however, social mobility was much greater than in Sparta. It is naturally wrong to assume that the democratic principles for which Athens was so famous were characteristic of this policy from its very foundation. In the VIII-VII centuries. BC. Eupatrides seized power in the nascent policy and its environs. They appropriated lands that previously belonged to all their fellow tribesmen, thus, the bulk of the population became dependent on aristocrats. In other words, Athens was threatened by the oligarchy, which we observed in a very specific form in Sparta.

Social differentiation remained very high even after the Draconian reforms, in which the highest penalty - death - was introduced for any infringement on the right to private property (it is important to note the colossal difference in the value system of the Athenians and the Spartans - the latter despised private property). An important (but by no means decisive) role in the life of Athens was played by slaves and foreigners-meteks, these rather low social strata in Athens were not exploited and not despised, but on the contrary they could even get rich and improve their social status, which again distinguishes this policy from Sparta.

It is not known what kind of social structure Athens would have had if not for the reforms of Solon. He eliminated the enslavement of the Athenians and established a new social division of all free citizens of the policy into 4 categories according to property:

As can be seen from the diagram, Solon's reforms noticeably smoothed out social inequality, however, social tension persisted. After the resignation of Solon, the tyrant Peisistratus and his sons tried to restrain him. In Sparta, the discontent of the inferior part of the population was suppressed by force of arms.

Finally, Cleisthenes at the beginning of the 6th century. BC. divided the people of Attica into new social groups, according to the territorial principle, which was another crushing blow to tribal principles, i.e. weakened the aristocracy

Summing up the analysis of these social systems, one cannot speak of the superiority of any of them, because each of them has not only positive, but also significant negative sides. The conservative stability of Sparta is just a fiction, such a society based on egalitarian principles cannot exist for a long time, which has been proven by historical experience (already starting from the 3rd-2nd centuries BC, the usual traditional norms are being decomposed here). An obvious shortcoming of the Athenian social system- too many social upheavals that the Athenians had to go through on the way from the tribal system to democracy.

Political structure

Outwardly, the political institutions of Athens and Sparta seem very different from each other. This is partly true, but it is worth saying that here you can find common features. First of all - the primacy of democratic principles, which was naturally more evident in the example of Attica than in Sparta. But this does not mean that democracy was completely absent in the Spartan state. "Sparta was characterized by a republican, though different from Athens, variant of the state structure."

There were two royal families in Sparta, two kings always ruled together, their main duty was to lead the army during the war, while in peacetime the royal power performed only religious duties. It is worth noting that the very fact that the supreme power was handed over to two political figures at the same time (as later in Republican Rome) speaks of the unwillingness of the Spartans to concentrate power in one hand, of their desire for political balance. The kings passed on their status by inheritance.

Gerusia led the “community of equals”, i.e. council of elders. It consisted of thirty people: two kings and twenty-eight advisers. The advisers were men over 60 years old, who were elected for life by the people's assembly, they decided what policy Sparta should pursue, they could act as judges.

The popular assembly itself (apella) included all citizens over 30 years old. It was in his power to accept or reject the bills proposed by the Gerousia. But the discussion of laws and their adoption in Sparta differed significantly from a similar process in Athens, where "every citizen had the right to speak and vote in the popular assembly." the popular assembly of Sparta "most often, without discussion, approved by shouting ... decisions" of the council of elders. However, this does not mean at all that the apella could not influence political decisions and blindly followed the decisions of the gerousia, the voting procedure was also provided for, when the members of the national assembly dispersed in different directions, demonstrating their agreement or disagreement with the issue under discussion. In this case, "it was determined by eye which side the majority was on." Such arrangements can by no means be called undemocratic.

Five ephors or overseers possessed greater real power, they were annually elected by the popular assembly. They were called upon "to exercise supreme supervision and day-to-day control over the entire 'community of equals'". Moreover, the ephors had the right to "bring to account any Spartiate, including the elders and kings." Over time, it was this five that became higher than the kings and gerusia, who were elected for life. And this, again, testifies to the unwillingness of the Spartans to abandon their very specific democracy and move to any form of absolute power.

The situation was different in Athens, where the demos, in the process of a long struggle for its rights, won dominant positions in political system policy. It was a multi-step process.

In Attica, before Solon, democracy was developed very poorly, power was still quite firmly in the hands of the aristocracy. The popular representation was extremely weak - the main democratic body of power: "Before Solon, gatherings of fellow tribesmen in the form of popular assemblies were held rarely, irregularly, at the request of the nobility, and were one of the tools of domination and political dominance of the nobility." However, under the great reformer, "the popular assembly (ecclesia) becomes a competent and sovereign governing body." The right to participate in the work of the ecclesia had all strata of citizens, including poor fetes. Each member of the popular assembly actively participated in its work, the Athenians made sure that at least 6,000 people were present at the meeting, and in order to collect such a number of people, a special police was created. From the foregoing, it can be seen that the Athenian popular assembly was more pluralistic than the Spartan one, in addition, the great interest of the Athenians in the affairs of the state is obvious.

The main task of the people's assembly was to discuss (endorse, change or decline) the proposals put forward by the Council. Under Solon, it consisted of 400 people, later the democrat Cleisthenes increased its composition to 500 people. The Council of 500 (bule) was elected by 50 people from each of the 10 fils. "The election of the Council by lot, the absence of any restrictions in the election of the boulevets and the prohibition to be a member of the Council of 500 twice during his life - all this turned him into a true spokesman for the interests of all sections of the civil collective."

Another important fact, testifying to the high development of Athenian democracy, is the establishment by the same Solon of a jury (heliei), even fetes were elected to the panel of judges. "Heliaea, along with the ecclesia, are becoming the most democratic bodies of the emerging polis."

Finally, we must not forget about the procedure of ostracism, according to which the Athenians could expel a hated politician from their city. Naturally, nothing like this could exist in Sparta.

It is clear from the foregoing that, to a greater or lesser extent, democracy was present both in Athens and in Sparta. But the Athenian policy is still considered a model of ancient democracy. So, in the book by S. V. Novikov, A. S. Manykin and O. V. Dmitrieva, the political system of Athens is called “slave-owning democracy”, Sparta – “slave-owning oligarchy”. This wording very accurately emphasizes the fact that in both policies democracy extended to the elect, to citizens, the difference was that the number of full-fledged citizens in the Athenian policy was much greater than in Sparta.

Economy

The economic development of both policies depended on the policies pursued by other rulers of these lands.

So, in Sparta, for most of its historical path, there was mainly an “ancient form of property as the collective property of fellow citizens - Spartans”, only the perieks had the right to private property (as already mentioned above). The elite (Spartiates) did not engage in productive activities, because for the citizens it was shameful to engage in agriculture, handicraft or trade. Helots had some economic independence, despite their low social status, and the perieks were the main entrepreneurial force of the policy (for example, they were the only ones who had contact with foreign traders).

The main difference between the Spartan socio-economic system is that the population was shackled by the narrow confines of the so-called "Lycurgus laws", which regulated the entire life of the Spartans to the smallest detail, forbade any luxury, and were prescribed to live in Spartan style, without excesses. In order to make property stratification impossible, the state forbade the Spartans to engage in crafts and trade. Interestingly, the Spartans even deliberately hampered the development of commodity-money relations - inside the policy, instead of convenient coins, heavy iron circles (obols) were used. In other words, in Sparta there was an incredibly large state intervention in the economy.

Things were different in Athens - the ideas of private property dominated here. Not even at all noble people(for example, meteki) could become rich here, being engaged in craft, trade or usury. Nevertheless, the matter here did not go to an insurmountable stratification between the rich and the poor, the activities of many political figures - Solon, Cleisthenes - were aimed at ensuring social justice, "leveling", but by no means as tough as in Sparta. It is worth remembering the liturgies - special duties imposed only on rich people who, at their own expense, had to build warships, arrange theatrical performances, etc.

Citizens had the right to own land plot, engaging in any kind of economic activity (as opposed to Sparta with its state prohibitions). Despite the increase in the number of slaves as the polis structure became more complex, their labor was not of decisive importance for the development of Athens. Slaves mostly worked on large estates and craft workshops.

Separately, it is worth mentioning the development of Athenian maritime trade. The largest maritime trade center in the ancient world was the Athenian harbor of Piraeus. Grain, wool, carpets were imported into Piraeus, different kind spices, fragrant oils and other luxury goods from the countries of the East, linen fabrics, bronze products, ship timber, resin, hemp and a number of other goods. Slaves were brought into Piraeus from various regions. The Athenians themselves consumed only an insignificant part of all these items. The bulk of the goods were resold to other cities and countries, which brought fabulous income to the policy.

Summing up, it is necessary to repeat that the main difference between the economies of the two states is the attitude towards private initiative. Its suppression in Sparta led to the economic backwardness of this policy, and attention to the private owner and his needs in Athens - their economic prosperity.

culture

Speaking of classical Greek culture, Athens and similar policies are traditionally mentioned. It is customary to speak of Sparta as a cultural backwater, although at the end of the archaic period there was one of the largest centers of spiritual culture: “Intellectually, the Spartans had their say in the development of music, drama, and poetry. The lyricist Alkman gained fame, ”besides, excellent artisans and artists lived here. However, this gradually faded away. The Spartans, guided by the "laws of Lycurgus," did not value the arts or philosophy. The main thing for them was not philanthropy (like the Athenians), but service to the state. So, a weak child who could not do military service could simply be left to die. Boys were brought up by the state from childhood, the Spartans spent most of their lives in the barracks (even when they were married). Moreover, the cult of a healthy body was also planted among female Spartans - so that children would be born healthy. They even had special sports competitions.

For the Athenians, the main value was a person (which, however, by no means canceled the polis patriotism of the townspeople), here the cult of a healthy body also took place. But a significant difference between Athens and Sparta is that philosophy, history, theatrical art, architecture, sculpture and many other sciences and arts were revered here. It is with the name of this policy that people are associated who glorified ancient Greece for many centuries: Plato, Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Herodotus, Aristophanes, Xenophon, Pindar, Praxiteles, Socrates, Phidias, Thucydides and many others. Sparta, alas, did not give rise to such giants.



AT Ancient Greece there were many policies, but two of them are the largest and most famous, Athens and Sparta. In this lesson, you will learn about the structure of these policies and try to compare them and understand the difference between them. You will also learn about the bloody Greco-Persian wars that took place over the years, and the Peloponnesian War, which was fought between two policies, Athens and Sparta.

Quantity ancient Greek policies until today it is completely unknown. It can be assumed that there were at least 100 of them. However, one should not forget that these city-states were very small. The standard area of ​​such a policy included about 100 square meters. km, and the population is about 5, 10, maximum 12 thousand people. The smallest polis that we know of consisted of only 800 people. The two largest Greek policies were Athens and Sparta.

The territory of Sparta in the period of its maximum prosperity reached 8400 square meters. km. On the territory of Sparta, 84 ordinary policies could be placed. The population of Sparta is estimated at 240-250 thousand people.

Athens was smaller than Sparta by several times. Its area was about 2700 square meters. km. The population of Athens is estimated at 200-220 thousand people, although, of course, history does not have exact data.

Small Greek cities constantly faced the problem of overpopulation. Throughout the archaic era from the middle of the VIII to the end of the VI century. BC e. there is a process known as Great Greek colonization (Fig. 2). Greek cities bring numerous colonies to other territories in the basin of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Only large such colonies were bred about 200 pieces. Their population was close to that of mainland Greece. During the archaic period, the population of Greek cities doubled. People who did not have enough land had to leave for the colonies. There were so many colonies that the territory of Southern Italy even got the name Magna Graecia, since almost more Greeks lived there than on the territory of Greece itself, and the number of cities there was several dozen.

Rice. 2. Great Greek colonization ()

Some of the Greek colonies still exist today. For example, the colony of Massilia (Massalia) is the current Marseille in France, Syracuse is in Italy, Naples also has a Greek name. If we talk about the Greek colonies on the territory of Russia, then some of these cities exist to this day. For example, Feodosia, Yevpatoria, on the site of Sevastopol there was a colony of Khersones, and on the site of Anapa - a colony of Gorgippia.

However, these colonies were only a temporary way out of the situation. Those cities that were especially actively faced with overpopulation introduced more colonies. There were cities that solved the problem in a different way: they were looking for new sources of raw materials and new markets. It is thanks to this that numerous steps are being taken in Greece towards creating a single space for the exchange of goods and raw materials.

Sparta is considered to be an older city than Athens. It arose in the 9th, possibly in the 10th century BC. e. The Spartans were Dorians, their ancestors came to the territory of Ancient Greece from the north and brought with them the art of iron smelting. The special nature of the position of Sparta among other Greek cities was due to the fact that Sparta retained its archaic social system for a long time. For example, royal power in other Greek cities was only in early antiquity, and the Spartans retained royal power until the very end of the independent existence of Sparta. Sparta was not a monarchy, but diarchy, 2 kings ruled there at the same time. This form of government is typical for some peoples who are in the process of transition from primitive to class society. In Sparta, this process dragged on.

The Spartan community was called community of equals: everyone was supposed to be equal both politically and economically, but it was only about citizens. There was a single fashion, a single form of a beard and mustache, a single form of hairstyles, and everyone took food together, the so-called joint meals were held.

Such a system social structure was oriented, mainly, to war (Fig. 3). Spartan children were brought up to be real warriors. There is a legend that boys who were weak were thrown off a high cliff in infancy. But it is possible that this is just a legend, otherwise there would be no children left in Sparta. Spartan children were taught endurance, strength, the ability to fight. All tests were focused on the fact that the young men later became warriors and brought glory to Sparta.

Rice. 3. Spartan warrior ()

The backward nature of the social system of Sparta, in comparison with other Greek cities, was manifested in the character in which slavery was manifested in Sparta. Slavery was also in other Greek policies, but there slavery was of an individual nature (each slave belonged to one person and was subordinate only to him). In Sparta, slavery was collective. Collective slaves who were called helots, belonged to the entire Spartan community as a whole. Helots were mainly engaged in agriculture. Such a system in Ancient Sparta caused bewilderment among the contemporaries of Sparta, among the Greeks from other policies, who lived in the V-VI centuries. BC e.

It was at this time, although historians believe that even earlier, in Sparta arose the legend of King Lycurgus (Fig. 4). The historicity of this king is questioned by historians even today. Whether he existed or not is still not clear. It was believed that he carried out a series of reforms in Sparta in order to consolidate such a system in Sparta. It was he who introduced a single fashion in Sparta, common meals and the Spartan system of education, created a system of government that existed in Sparta until the very end of its independent history. It is believed that it was Lycurgus who ordered the Spartans to abandon gold and silver coins and use iron coins. They did not have iron coins, and the exchange took place with the help of obols, which in Greek means "stick, skewer." These were large iron bars, from which a piece was broken off in accordance with the price of a particular commodity.

Athens from the very beginning they called themselves not agrarian, but trade and craft policy. From the very beginning, handicraft, agriculture and trade developed well in Athens. That is why Athens immediately became a place of attraction for people from different Greek regions. The emergence of this policy is associated with the name of the hero Theseus who was the founder of this city. The figure of Theseus remains legendary, while other Athenian political figures were historical in nature. For example, at the end of the seventh century BC e. Archon ruled in Athens Dracont(Archons were called the highest government officials). Dracont adopted a system of legal norms - dragon laws. Of these, only one has come down to us. It is said that he ordered the death penalty for a person who would commit any, even the most insignificant crime, primarily a crime against property. The task that faced Dracon was to create an institution of private property in the city. It is not known how often the law of Draco on the death penalty was applied, but after this law, the institution of private property arises in Athens.

Another important task of the rulers of Athens was struggle with the tribal aristocracy. It was difficult to ensure that all people took part in the government of the state. The reforms of two major legislators of Athens were aimed at combating the tribal aristocracy and creating a democratic system of government. VIcentury BC e. - Solon and Cleisthenes (Fig. 5). During the reforms of Cleisthenes, which were carried out at the end of the VI century. BC e., such a political order was introduced as ostracism- a political procedure in which persons who posed a danger to the Athenian state were expelled from the country for a period of 10 years. In order for this procedure to be carried out, it was necessary to collect 6,000 potsherds, on which his name would be written, as a person threatening the stability and security of Athens. Such shards in Greek were called "ostraka", hence the name - ostracism.

Rice. 5. Bust of Cleisthenes ()

Despite all the contradictions that existed between Sparta and Athens, they had to join forces at the very beginning of the 5th century BC. e. This was due to the fact that the Persian Empire had expanded to the borders of Greece and now posed a threat to the independence of the Greek city-states. All Greek cities had to unite against such a serious threat.

This era was called Greco-Persian Wars. It was about a whole series of military clashes that took place between 500-449 BC e. These wars started Milesian uprising. The Greek city of Miletus, located on the western coast of Asia Minor, rebelled against Persian rule. Taking advantage of the fact that there was no Persian army on the western borders of the state, the Milesians revolted. The Milesians managed to gather an army and attack the Persian capital - the city Sardis. When the Milesians realized that the Persians were trying to suppress this uprising, they resorted to the help of other Greek cities. They sent envoys there asking for military assistance. But the Greek cities did not want to help Miletus. They understood that the military clashes between the Greeks and the Persians could not end in favor of the Greeks. The Persian army was much larger and it was difficult for the Greeks to deal with the Persian fleet. As a result, only 2 Greek cities sent help to Miletus - Athens and Irifa. However, the help was very small, and it did not matter seriously. Of course, the uprising was crushed, and those ships that Athens sent served as a pretext for attacking the Greek states.

The first Persian campaign against Greece took place in 492 BC. uh. The army was led by the adviser Mardonius. The campaign ended in nothing, since nature prevented the Persians from reaching even Central Greece. When the Persian fleet moved along Cape Athos, a wind suddenly came up and scattered the Persian ships. The army, standing on the shore, could not help the Persian fleet in any way. They had to turn back.

The Greeks perceived the catastrophe at Cape Athos as a divine will. The Persians learned from this, and the next time the Persian fleet sailed along the Greek coast, a canal was built along the Athos peninsula, which would help the Persian ships to cross this cape.

The next campaign against Greece was undertaken in 490 BC. uh. King Darius sent an army under the command of the generals Datis and Artaphernes. A powerful Persian fleet approached Greece and attacked the city of Irifa. After the Irifs were destroyed, the Persians decided to capture Athens and landed on the coast of Attica. Right here September 12, 490 B.C. e. the famous Battle of Marathon took place (Fig. 6). The battle ended with the defeat of the Persians.

Rice. 6. Map of the Battle of Marathon, 490 BC e. ()

In 480 BC. e. King Xerxes brought his troops to Greece. A huge Persian army invaded the territory of central Greece. The Greeks united in order to resist this invasion. The battle at Thermopylae Gorge, which was undertaken by the Spartan army, went down in history. The Spartans at first managed to keep the Persians in this narrow gorge, which was the only road from central Greece to the south. But the Persians managed to cope with this detachment. According to legend, among the Greeks there was a traitor who led the Persians along a bypass path.

Another battle of 480 BC is also known. e. - Salamis naval battle (Fig. 7). By this time, the Persian army had already occupied the city of Athens. The inhabitants of Athens were evacuated to the island of Salamis, which was located at a distance of several kilometers from the Athenian port of Piraeus. The Persian fleet also came here. It was here, in the bay of Athens, that the famous battle took place. The Greeks were much less powerful than the Persians. They had fewer ships, as well as a smaller army. But the Greeks had patriotism on their side. The inhabitants of Athens, standing on the island of Salamis and seeing their city burning down - after all, the Persians set fire to Athens - understood that if they did not win, Athens would no longer exist.

Rice. 7. Salamis naval battle, 480 BC e. ()

Thanks to patriotism and the fact that the Athenians knew their bay better, and the powerful Persian ships were slow-moving, the Athenians managed to win this battle. In 479 BC. e. The Persians were again defeated in the battle of Plataea in the territory of the policy of Biotia.

After this battle, the Greco-Persian wars still continued. But on the territory of mainland Greece itself, they no longer walked. In 449 BC. e. the Treaty of Callia was signed, which sealed the end of the Greco-Persian wars. Formally these wars ended in a draw. The Persians promised not to interfere in Greek affairs, and the Greeks - in Persian. But actually it was the defeat of the Persians. For the Persian Empire, victory in this war was very important. The Persians needed new lands and riches in order to maintain a huge army and an equally large bureaucracy. Not having received all this, the Persian state entered a period of decline.

The period of stable development of the Greek states, which began after the end of the Greco-Persian wars, was very short. This period went down in history as the heyday of Athenian democracy. However, only a small part of the people who lived in Athens were citizens and could influence the political struggle in this city. It is believed that slaves in Athens made up at least half of the city's population. A large part of the population were meteki- visitors who did not have civil rights and could not take part in government. Also, women had to be subtracted from the number of citizens, since they did not have political rights in Greece. Children also made up a large part of the population of Athens, and their participation in political life was excluded. Therefore, out of 200-220 thousand inhabitants of the city of Athens, only 10-15 thousand people could be citizens who took part in the political struggle in Athens.

The popular assembly in Athens represented the interests of only a very small part of the population of the city. It met regularly: every 9 days in the market square, which was called agora. The People's Assembly elected numerous officials who were supposed to keep order in the city. People who monitored the sanitary condition in the city were called astinomas. The officials who checked the observance of the rules of trade were called agoranomas. Were strategists- military leaders, as well as naval commanders - navarchs, officials who monitored the correctness of measures and weights - metronomes.

Athens also had permanent government bodies, such as Areopagus (council of elders) and council of five hundred, in which residents were chosen from different areas of the policy of Athens. The Council of Five Hundred was a kind of parliament and could sit much more often than the people's assembly.

This flowering of Athenian democracy is largely associated with the victories in the Greco-Persian wars. It was Athens who received the maximum benefits from this war. Was created Athenian maritime alliance, within which they were able to force their former allies in the Greco-Persian wars to submit to the Athenian political line.

However, this flourishing process was short-lived. Greece is entering a new crisis. The contradiction between Athens and Sparta made itself felt. Athens considered itself not only the main trade and craft policy of Greece, but they also believed that it was Athens that should play the leading role in the politics of all Greek states. Sparta disagreed. Athens owed this position to their strategist Pericles (Fig. 8) who led the city for 15 years.

In the period from 431 to 404 years. BC e. in Greece there was a war between Athens and Sparta, which went down in history as the Peloponnesian War. Athens lost this war. Sparta was much weaker than Athens economically. But the army of Sparta was much stronger. Athens suffered their defeat hard, then the period of their decline began. For Sparta, this moment also turned out to be negative. After the defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC. e. Greece has entered a period of crisis.

Bibliography

1. Andreev Yu.V. Archaic Sparta. Art and Politics. - St. Petersburg, 2008.
2. Volobuev O.V., Ponomarev M.V. General history for 10th grade. - M.: Bustard, 2012.
3. Varry J. The Wars of Antiquity from the Greco-Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. - M.: Eksmo, 2009.
4. Klimov O.Yu., Zemlyanitsin V.A., Noskov V.V., Myasnikova V.S. General history for 10th grade. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2013.
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5. Internet portal "Studopedia.ru" ()

Homework

1. What was the difference between the two policies, Athens and Sparta?
2. Tell us about the causes, course and results of the Greco-Persian wars.
3. What is Athenian democracy? Could every Athenian take part in the government of Athens?
4. Describe the causes and results of the Peloponnesian War.

Topic 2. The history of the development of pedagogy.

Plan:

1. Pre-scientific stage.

2. The stage of the emergence of theoretical concepts of education, training.

3. The stage of developed pedagogical science.

pre-scientific stage.

In the history of the development of pedagogical science, three main stages of its formation can be distinguished, based on the degree of scientific development of pedagogical knowledge:

Stage I, pre-scientific, lasted until the 17th century and was characterized by:

· the accumulation of a significant fund of empirical material in the form of individual disparate pedagogical information, which was recorded in the form of beliefs, rules, requirements, traditions, customs, rituals, which now form the basis of folk pedagogy;

· theoretical understanding of empirical educational experience in philosophical treatises;

the emergence and consolidation in the use of a number of pedagogical concepts.

The development of society, the need for education and upbringing led to the creation of special educational and educational institutions that were responsible for comprehending theoretical knowledge, learning experience and introducing it into the upbringing process. All this led to the fact that pedagogy as a science was formed and separated into a separate branch.

That is why at a certain moment in the development of civilization, when production and science were developed, it was in the late period of the slave system, education turned into a certain institution of education, educational institutions appeared, specialists whose main task was the upbringing and education of children. Such schools appeared in Ancient Egypt, in the countries of the Middle East, Ancient Greece.

Already in ancient world some learned minds realized the importance of educating and passing on positive experience to generations. Even in the Bible there are indications of pedagogical and educational activities. So, King Solomon in his statements emphasized the educational role of fathers, who had to take care of teaching their sons in this or that work. Gradually, becoming more complex and expanding, education began to develop more intensively and effectively. At first it happened in the realm of philosophy.

Already in the works of the ancient Greek philosophers - Heraclitus (530-470 BC), Democritus (460 - early IV century BC), Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) and others - contained a lot of deep thoughts on education. So, historical stages development of pedagogy.

Primitive communal system

At the dawn of civilization in the primitive communal system, the goal of education was to acquire life experience and labor skills.

Since animal husbandry and agriculture were developed, then, accordingly, children were taught to care for animals and grow plants. Girls helped women cook food, make clothes, dishes. Together with their fathers, the sons learned to hunt and fish, learned to fight. The lifestyle of a primitive man was closely connected with nature, so there were many rituals, traditions, pagan holidays, in which children were also dedicated. Children had to know the history of the family, customs, etc. Children were taught to participate in holidays, games, rituals, and they also studied oral folk art: fairy tales, songs, legends, etc. Education during this period was closely connected with everyday life, and man was not yet able to single out this subject as a separate branch of science.

Ancient Greece (Sparta and Athens)

Due to the fact that Sparta is a city where sports played a dominant role, the goal of the educational and pedagogical process was considered to be the upbringing and training of courageous and hardy warriors who could later become slave owners.

Warriors were trained in Sparta, so they were engaged in raising boys in specialized institutions. Boys at the age of 7 were taken from their families, the training consisted of military physical training: it was necessary to learn how to run fast, jump, wrestle, throw a discus and a spear, be unpretentious in food, not be afraid of the dark, easily endure difficulties, hunger, thirst and other inconveniences . The most important thing that the boys were taught was to obey their elders unquestioningly, to be able to clearly and concisely answer questions. From 18 to 20 years old, young men underwent special military training, and then enlisted in the army. The main focus of education in Sparta is contempt for slaves and physical labor and praise for sporting achievements.

Girls were brought up at home, but, like boys, they had to be physically developed, prepared to manage slaves. Education was limited to teaching writing and counting. Just like men, girls participated in sports and festivities. At a time when male warriors participated in hostilities and were absent from home, female mistresses had to guard their own home and their city, and also keep slaves in strict subordination.

Athens

Unlike Sparta, the goal of education in Athens is the mental, moral, aesthetic and physical development of a person, since the one who is beautiful both physically and morally was considered ideal. Until the age of 7, all children were brought up in the family. Great attention was paid to the physical development of children. For children to develop mentally, fairy tales were read to them, literary works playing with them, listening to music. Children from an early age participated in celebrations, holidays, sports competitions, learned to play musical instruments. In a word, the development of children was distinguished by an emotional orientation, and upbringing was of an aesthetic nature. First, at the grammar school, children learned to read, write, and count, then at the cipher school, they studied literature and here they specially received aesthetic education - they learned to sing, recite, play musical instruments. The next stage of education is the palestra, where teenagers mastered pentathlon (running, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing, swimming), went in for sports, and also talked on moral and political topics with the most respected citizens.

For the wealthy slave owners of Athens, there were gymnasiums - schools where such sciences as philosophy, literature, and government were studied. From the age of 18, for two years, young men, just like in Sparta, underwent military physical training.

The key word that defines the individual feature of the Ancient Greek civilization is the policy. Policy This is a Greek version of the city-state, which included the capital - the city itself and the territories adjacent to it. According to the territory occupied, a typical Greek policy was a small settlement (100-200 sq. km.), Where from 5 to 10 thousand people can live. The largest policies were Sparta and Athens, whose population was up to 200 thousand people.

In the Greek polis as a city-state, royal power disappeared early (due to the lack of real need), the role of the aristocracy and the priesthood was significantly infringed, and the small and medium ignoble proprietors (peasant, artisan, merchant) came to the forefront of public life. The city-state of the polis is a community of free citizens-owners, a civil community, the core of which was a city with an adjacent village district. choroy. The main living space of the policy, its center was considered agora market Square. People's meetings were held here, people sold their goods, bought, exchanged information, and engaged in politics. The policy had citadel which the Greeks called acropolis, i.e. upper city. It was, as a rule, a fortified part of the city, located on a hill. The state treasury of the policy, the temples of the Olympic gods and heroes, gymnasium a place for youth sports exercises.

The Greeks did not imagine a normal human life outside the policy. Only such a way of life they considered worthy of a free man, a real Hellenic, and in this they saw their difference from all barbarian peoples. The inhabitants of the policy constituted one community-polis. In contrast to the East, the community-polis included not only the rural, but also the urban population. Everyone could become a member of the community, provided that he must be a Greek by nationality, free and owning private property. All members of the community had political rights, could engage in state activities. Therefore, the Greek policy is called a civil community. Within the policy, civil law was gradually formed, i.e. codes of laws were formed that determined the rights and obligations of members of the policy, which formed the basis of polis solidarity. Citizens in fact put the interests of the policy above their personal interests. So the duty of wealthy people (liturgy) in favor of the policy acted as an honorable duty. The poor in the polis could live at the expense of the rich. The policy was engaged not only in internal affairs, but could also conduct foreign policy activities, had its own army. All the citizens of the polis were potential warriors, members of the polis militia, who took up arms when necessary. Thus, a full member of the policy combined a citizen, an owner and a warrior. For the Greek policy was characteristic autarky(self-sufficiency): the economic basis of the life of the policy was provided by agriculture, which its citizens were engaged in, they also solved the civil and military issues facing the city-state.

The policy was characterized by 2 types of government: oligarchic(minority power) and democratic(majority rule). The two main factors in the development of Greek democracy were: the high importance of the people's assembly and the elective power. According to its social structure, the policy was divided into three layers: full-fledged citizens, members of the community-polis; not members of the policy, peasants who lost their land and meteki(Foreigners); slaves (only prisoners of war became slaves). Slavery in Greece was perceived as something natural, and freedom was considered a gift that was not available to all people.

The policies reached their peak at the turn of the 6th - 5th centuries. BC e. By this time, Greece consisted of many separate small city-states. Relatively stable and large associations policies arose during the wars with Persia. They were led by the two most powerful policies - Athens and Sparta, and each of them developed in a special way.

The history of Athens is the history of the formation of a democratic polis. At first, the monopoly of power in Athens belonged to the tribal nobility ( Eupatrides), which were included in Areopagus(council) the highest collegiate body of power, the policy of which was carried out by three senior officials archons, in their activities conferred with the assembly elders, representatives of noble aristocratic families. The popular assembly was losing its power, and the free citizens of the policy gradually began to turn into dependents on the nobility, which led to an aggravation of social tension in the policy. At the beginning of the VI century. Athens was on the brink civil war, which was avoided thanks to the reforms Solon, an impoverished eupatrid, elected archon, in 594 Solon banned debt slavery, those previously enslaved for debts were declared free, debts for land were canceled, and the sale of land in one hand was limited. The political rights of the free members of the policy were determined depending on the property qualification. Thus, the poor could vote, but not be elected to the highest positions. The role of the people's assembly, which now met 40 times a year, increased. In opposition to the aristocratic Areopagus, a Council of 400 citizens was created. Under Solon, the jury was also introduced. Further, in the course of the struggle between democracy and the aristocracy, a number of important democratic principles were determined, one of which was local self-government, which Constitution of Cleisthenes. In 509-507. BC. Archon of Athens Cleisthenes, with his administrative-territorial reform, abolished the old tribal organization of society, introducing the division of the population into 10 new territorial Phil, from each of which 50 people were selected to the Council, created by Solon. Cleisthenes managed to equalize the rights of indigenous citizens and metecs. Under him, a political custom appeared in Athens - ostracism(court of potsherds) when the citizens themselves, using a procedure similar to the prototype of the secret ballot, determined whether someone threatened the Athenian democracy. In the middle of the 5th century due to the reform of the Athenian strategist Pericles all citizens of the policy acquired the right to be elected to any position, except for the position of military leader.

Another option for the development of the policy gives Sparta. In historiography, Sparta is called a militarized state. The basis on which the community of equals (Spartiates) was based was slaves helots. In addition to them, they worked for the Spartans perieki(living around), personally free, even involved in the auxiliary units of the infantry, but without political rights, the inhabitants of Sparta. The position of the inhabitants of Sparta was strictly defined. The Spartans themselves, full members of the policy, were only warriors and were not engaged in productive labor or trade. Craft and trade were considered the lot of the perieks, and the agricultural labor of the slaves was considered the helots. There was no private ownership of land in Sparta. The whole land was divided into 9 thousand plots (corresponding to the number of full-fledged citizens of the policy), each of which, together with the helots living on it, was transferred to one Spartiate. Sparta was ruled by two military kings. The kings had some priestly and judicial functions. Big weight had a council of elders gerusia) of 30 people, which included both kings and 28 elected geronts at least 60 years of age. In fact, the council of elders performed both legislative and executive functions. The people's assembly had the right only to agree or disagree with the proposals of the council of elders. Control over the activities of the kings and gerousias (and all the Spartans) was carried out ephors, chosen annually by one of every five Spartan villages. So Sparta gives us an example oligarchic rule.

During the Greco-Persian Wars, rivalry between Athens and Sparta was born. The entire Greek world was divided into two irreconcilable camps: supporters of Athens, who led Delian Maritime Union(478 BC) and then Athenian maritime power(250 policies), and supporters of Sparta, who created in opposition to Athens Peloponnesian Union, which, in addition to small policies, included rich Corinth and Megara. In 431, a war began between these unions, which lasted 30 years, and in which almost all Greek policies were drawn. Ultimately, the victory went to Sparta, but this war weakened not only Athens and Sparta, but the whole of Greece. It was not only democracy that lost, but also the oligarchy, not only the defeated, but also the winners.