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Brief History of Ancient Sparta. Sparta


Around ancient greek sparta and to this day, many disputes and myths born of popular culture. Were the Spartans really unsurpassed warriors and did not like mental work, did they really get rid of their own children, and were the customs of the Spartans really so severe that they were forbidden to eat in their own homes? Let's try to figure it out.

Starting a conversation about Sparta, it would be worth noting that the self-name of this ancient Greek state was "Lacedaemon", and its inhabitants called themselves "Lacedaemonians". The emergence of the name "Sparta" humanity owes not to the Hellenes, but to the Romans.


Sparta, like many ancient states, had a complex in structure, but logical, system of social organization. In fact, society was divided into full citizens, non-full citizens and dependents. In turn, each of the categories was divided into estates. Helots, although they were considered slaves, were not them in the sense familiar to modern man. However, "ancient" and "classical" slavery deserves separate consideration. It is also worth mentioning the special class of "hypomeyons", which included physically and mentally handicapped children of the citizens of Sparta. They were considered incomplete citizens, but they were still above a number of other social categories. The existence of such a class in Sparta significantly reduces the viability of the theory of the murder of handicapped children in Sparta.


This myth took root thanks to the description of the Spartan society created by Plutarch. So, in one of his works, he described that weak children were thrown into a gorge in the mountains of Taygetus by the decision of the elders. Today, scientists on this issue have not come to a consensus, however, most of them are inclined to the version that such an unusual tradition had no place in Sparta. Do not discount the fact that the Greek chronicles sin with exaggerations and embellishments of facts. The proof of which was discovered by historians after comparing the same facts and their descriptions in the Greek and Roman chronicles.

Of course, in Sparta, throughout its described history, there was a very rigid system for raising children, in particular, boys. The education system was called agoge, which in Greek means "withdrawal". In Spartan society, the children of citizens were considered public property. Since the agoge itself was a rather cruel system of education, it is possible that the mortality rate was indeed high. Thus, killing weak children immediately after birth is unlikely.

Another popular myth is the invincibility of the Spartan army. Of course, the Spartan army was strong enough to influence its neighbors, however, and she, as you know, knew defeat. In addition, the Spartan army was largely losing on many issues to the armies of other powers, including the armies of the neighbors of the Greeks. The warriors were distinguished by excellent training and personal combat skills. They were in excellent physical condition. Moreover, the very concept of discipline in the army was adopted by neighboring peoples precisely from the Spartans. Even the Romans admired the strength of the Spartan army, although it eventually lost to them. At the same time, the Spartans did not know engineering, which did not allow them to effectively besiege enemy cities.


According to historians, discipline, courage and valor on the battlefield were highly valued in Spartan society, honesty and devotion, modesty and moderation were revered (however, one can doubt the latter, knowing about their feasts and orgies). And although sometimes the leaders of the Spartans in matters of politics were distinguished by deceit and perfidy, this people was one of the greatest representatives of the Hellenic group.

Sparta was a democracy. In any case, all the most important issues were decided by the general meeting of citizens, at which they simply shouted over each other. Of course, not only citizens lived in Sparta, and the power, although of the people, did not belong to the entire demos.

The Spartan household was not much different from that of most other Greek city-states. The same products were grown in the fields of Lacedaemon. The Spartans were engaged in cattle breeding, breeding mainly sheep. For the most part, labor on earth was the lot of helots - slaves, as well as deprived citizens.

In Sparta, mental work was really not held in high esteem, but this does not mean at all that Sparta did not give history a single poet or writer. Among the most famous of them are Alkman and Terpander. However, even they were distinguished by good physical training. And the Spartan priest-soothsayer Tisamen of Elea was even more famous for being an unsurpassed athlete. The stereotype about the cultural ignorance of the Spartans was born, probably because both Alkman and Terpander were not natives of this city.


Public relations and foundations played a very important role in the daily life of the Spartans. Among historians, there is even a theory that the Spartans were forbidden to eat at home, regardless of their status and position in society. Instead, the Spartans were supposed to eat exclusively in public places, a kind of canteens of that time.

The image of the Spartans, as well as the image of the Wiggs, whom many represent as, of course, did not escape romanticization. Nevertheless, there is much in the Lacedaemonians that it is not superfluous to learn and modern man and what has become part of our daily lives. In particular, the word "laconic" has precisely Greek roots and means a restrained, moderate and not verbose person. It was with this word that the Spartans were identified in the Peloponnese and beyond.

The glory of Sparta - the Peloponnesian city in Laconia - is very loud in historical chronicles and in the world. It was one of the most famous policies Ancient Greece who did not know troubles and civil upheavals, and his army never retreated before the enemies.

Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, who reigned in Laconia one and a half thousand years before the birth of Christ and named the city after his wife. In the first centuries of the existence of the city, there were no walls around it: they were erected only under the tyrant Naviz. True, they were later destroyed, but Appius Claudius soon erected new ones.

Creator Spartan state the ancient Greeks considered the legislator Lycurgus, whose life time falls approximately in the first half of the 7th century BC. e. The population of ancient Sparta in its composition was divided in those days into three groups: Spartans, perieks and helots. The Spartans lived in Sparta itself and enjoyed all the rights of citizenship of their city-state: they had to fulfill all the requirements of the law and they were admitted to all honorary public positions. The occupation of agriculture and handicraft, although it was not forbidden to this class, did not correspond to the image of the upbringing of the Spartans and therefore was despised by them.

Most of the lands of Laconia were at their disposal and cultivated for them by the helots. To own land plot, the Spartan had to fulfill two requirements: to follow all the rules of discipline exactly and to provide a certain part of the income for sissitia - a public table: barley flour, wine, cheese, etc.

Game was obtained by hunting in state forests; moreover, everyone who sacrificed to the gods sent a part of the carcass of the sacrificial animal to the sissitium. Violation or failure to comply with these rules (for any reason) led to the loss of citizenship rights. All full citizens of ancient Sparta, young and old, had to participate in these dinners, while no one had any advantages and privileges.

The circle of perieks was also made up of free people, but they were not full citizens of Sparta. Perieki inhabited all the cities of Laconia, except for Sparta, which belonged exclusively to the Spartans. They did not constitute a politically whole city-state, since they received control in their cities only from Sparta. The periaeci of the various cities were independent of each other, and at the same time each of them was dependent on Sparta.

Helots made up the rural population of Laconia: they were slaves of those lands that were cultivated in favor of the Spartans and perieks. Helots also lived in cities, but urban life was not typical for helots. They were allowed to have a house, a wife and a family, it was forbidden to sell the helot outside the possessions. Some scholars believe that the sale of helots was generally impossible, since they were the property of the state, and not of individuals. Some accounts of the cruel treatment of the helots by the Spartans have come down to our times, although again some of the scholars believe that contempt was more visible in this respect.


Plutarch reports that every year (by virtue of the decrees of Lycurgus) the ephors solemnly declared war against the helots. Young Spartans, armed with daggers, went all over Laconia and exterminated the unfortunate helots. But over time, scientists found that this method of exterminating the helots was not legalized during Lycurgus, but only after the First Messenian War, when the helots became dangerous for the state.

Plutarch, the author of biographies of prominent Greeks and Romans, starting his story about the life and laws of Lycurgus, warned the reader that nothing reliable could be reported about them. And yet he had no doubt that this politician was a historical figure.

Most scientists of modern times consider Lycurgus a legendary person: one of the first, back in the 1820s, was the famous German historian of antiquity, K.O. Muller, who doubted his historical existence. He suggested that the so-called "laws of Lycurgus" are much older than their legislator, since these are not so much laws as ancient folk customs, rooted in the distant past of the Dorians and all other Hellenes.

Many of the scientists (W. Wilamowitz, E. Meyer and others) consider the biography of the Spartan legislator, preserved in several versions, as a late revision of the myth of the ancient Laconian deity Lycurgus. Adherents of this trend questioned the very existence of "legislation" in ancient Sparta. E. Meyer classified the customs and rules that regulated the daily life of the Spartans as “the way of life of the Dorian tribal community”, from which classical Sparta grew almost without any changes.

But the results of archaeological excavations, which were carried out in 1906-1910 by the English archaeological expedition in Sparta, served as a pretext for the partial rehabilitation of the ancient legend about the legislation of Lycurgus. The British explored the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, one of the most ancient temples of Sparta, and discovered many works of art of local production: wonderful examples of painted ceramics, unique terracotta masks (not found anywhere else), objects made of bronze, gold, amber and ivory.

For the most part, these finds somehow did not fit in with the ideas of the harsh and ascetic life of the Spartans, of the almost complete isolation of their city from the rest of the world. And then scientists suggested that the laws of Lycurgus in the 7th century BC. e. were not yet put into action and the economic and cultural development of Sparta proceeded in the same way as the development of other Greek states. Only towards the end of the 6th century BC. e. Sparta closes in on itself and turns into the city-state as ancient writers knew it.

Because of the threats of a rebellion by the helots, the situation was then restless, and therefore the "initiators of reforms" could resort (as was often the case in ancient times) to the authority of some hero or deity. In Sparta, Lycurgus was chosen for this role, who gradually began to turn from a deity into a historical legislator, although ideas about his divine origin persisted until the time of Herodotus.

Lycurgus had a chance to put in order a cruel and outrageous people, therefore it was necessary to teach him to resist the onslaught of other states, and for this to make everyone skillful warriors. One of the first reforms of Lycurgus was the organization of the management of the Spartan community. Ancient writers claimed that he created the Council of Elders (gerousia) of 28 people. The elders (geronts) were elected by the apella - the people's assembly; The Gerousia also included two kings, one of whose main duties was to command the army during the war.

From the descriptions of Pausanias we know that the period of the most intensive building activity in the history of Sparta was the 6th century BC. e. At that time, the temple of Athena Mednodomnaya on the acropolis, the portico of Skiada, the so-called "throne of Apollo" and other buildings were erected in the city. But on Thucydides, who saw Sparta in the last quarter of the 5th century BC. e., the city made the most bleak impression.

Against the backdrop of the luxury and grandeur of Athenian architecture from the time of Pericles, Sparta already seemed a nondescript provincial town. The Spartans themselves, not being afraid to be considered old-fashioned, did not stop worshiping archaic stone and wooden idols at a time when Phidias, Myron, Praxiteles and other outstanding sculptors of Ancient Greece created their masterpieces in other Hellenic cities.

In the second half of the VI century BC. e. there was a noticeable cooling of the Spartans for the Olympic Games. Prior to that, they took an active part in them and accounted for more than half of the winners, and in all major types of competitions. Subsequently, for all the time from 548 to 480 BC. e., only one representative of Sparta, King Demarat, won the victory, and only in one type of competition - horse racing at the hippodrome.

In order to achieve harmony and peace in Sparta, Lycurgus decided to permanently eradicate wealth and poverty in his state. He forbade the use of gold and silver coins, which were used throughout Greece, and instead introduced iron money in the form of obols. They bought only what was produced in Sparta itself; in addition, they were so heavy that even a small amount had to be transported on a wagon.

Lycurgus also prescribed the way of home life: all Spartans, from a simple citizen to a king, had to live in exactly the same conditions. A special order indicated what houses could be built, what clothes to wear: it had to be so simple that there was no place for any luxury. Even the food had to be the same for everyone.

Thus, in Sparta, wealth gradually lost all meaning, since it was impossible to use it: citizens began to think less about their own good, and more about the state. Nowhere in Sparta did poverty coexist with wealth, as a result, there was no envy, rivalry and other selfish passions that exhausted a person. There was also no greed that opposes private benefit to the public good and arms one citizen against another.

One of the Spartan youths, who bought land for nothing, was put on trial. The accusation said that he was still very young, and was already tempted by profit, while self-interest is the enemy of every inhabitant of Sparta.

The upbringing of children was considered in Sparta one of the main duties of a citizen. The Spartan, who had three sons, was exempted from guard duty, and the father of five from all existing duties.

From the age of 7, the Spartan no longer belonged to his family: the children were separated from their parents and began social life. From that moment on, they were brought up in special detachments (agels), where they were supervised not only by fellow citizens, but also by specially assigned censors. Children were taught to read and write, they were taught to be silent for a long time, and to speak concisely - briefly and clearly.

Gymnastic and sports exercises were supposed to develop dexterity and strength in them; so that there was harmony in the movements, the young men were obliged to participate in choral dances; hunting in the forests of Laconia developed patience for hard trials. They fed the children rather poorly, therefore they made up for the lack of food not only by hunting, but also by theft, since they were also taught to steal; however, if someone came across, they beat them mercilessly - not for theft, but for awkwardness.

Young men who reached the age of 16 were subjected to a very severe test at the altar of the goddess Artemis: they were cruelly flogged, but they had to be silent. Even the smallest cry or groan contributed to the continuation of the punishment: some did not stand the test and died.

In Sparta, there was a law according to which no one was supposed to be more complete than necessary. According to this law, all young men who had not yet achieved civil rights were shown to the ephors - members of the election commission. If the young men were strong and strong, then they were honored with praise; young men, whose body was considered too flabby and loose, were beaten with sticks, as their appearance dishonored Sparta and its laws.

Plutarch and Xenophon wrote that Lycurgus legitimized that women also perform the same exercises as men, and through that they became strong and could give birth to strong and healthy offspring. Thus, Spartan women were worthy of their husbands, as they were also subject to a harsh upbringing.

The women of ancient Sparta, whose sons died, went to the battlefield and looked where they were wounded. If in the chest, then the women proudly looked at those around them and honorably buried their children in their father's tombs. If they saw wounds on their backs, then, weeping with shame, they hurried to hide, leaving others to bury the dead.

Marriage in Sparta was also subject to the law: personal feelings did not matter, because it was all a matter of state. Boys and girls could enter into marriage, whose physiological development corresponded to each other and from whom healthy children could be expected: marriage between persons of unequal builds was not allowed.

But Aristotle speaks of the position of Spartan women in a completely different way: while the Spartans led a strict, almost ascetic life, their wives indulged in extraordinary luxury in their home. This circumstance forced men to get money often in dishonest ways, because direct funds were forbidden to them. Aristotle wrote that Lycurgus tried to subject Spartan women to the same strict discipline, but met with a decisive rebuff from their side.

Left to their own devices, women became self-willed, indulged in luxury and licentiousness, they even began to interfere in state affairs, which eventually led to a real gynecocracy in Sparta. “And what difference does it make,” Aristotle asks bitterly, “whether the women themselves rule or whether the ruling persons are under their power?” The blame for the Spartans was that they behaved boldly and impudently and allowed themselves luxury, which challenged the strict norms of state discipline and morality.

To protect his legislation from foreign influence, Lycurgus limited Sparta's ties with foreigners. Without permission, which was given only in cases of special importance, the Spartan could not leave the cities and travel abroad. Foreigners were also forbidden from entering Sparta. The inhospitality of Sparta was the most famous phenomenon in ancient world.

The citizens of ancient Sparta were something like a military garrison, constantly exercising and always ready for war either with the helots or with an external enemy. The legislation of Lycurgus took on an exclusively military character also because those were the times when there was no public and personal security, there were no general principles on which state tranquility is based. In addition, the Dorians in a very small number settled in the country of the helots they conquered and were surrounded by half-subdued or not subdued Achaeans at all, therefore they could only hold on to battles and victories.

Such a harsh upbringing, at first glance, could make the life of ancient Sparta very boring, and the people themselves unhappy. But from the writings of ancient Greek authors it is clear that such unusual laws made the Spartans the most prosperous people in the ancient world, because everywhere only rivalry in the acquisition of virtues dominated.

There was a prediction according to which Sparta would remain a strong and powerful state as long as it followed the laws of Lycurgus and remained indifferent to gold and silver. After the war with Athens, the Spartans brought money to their city, which seduced the inhabitants of Sparta and forced them to retreat from the laws of Lycurgus. And from that moment on, their prowess began to gradually fade away ...

Aristotle, on the other hand, believes that it was the abnormal position of women in Spartan society that led to the fact that Sparta in the second half of the 4th century BC. e. terribly depopulated and lost its former military power.

Ancient Sparta was the main economic and military rival of Athens. The city-state and its surrounding territory were located on the Peloponnese peninsula, southwest of Athens. Administratively, Sparta (also called Lacedaemon) was the capital of the province of Laconia.

The adjective "Spartan" in modern world came from energetic warriors with an iron heart and steely endurance. The inhabitants of Sparta were famous not for arts, science or architecture, but for brave warriors, for whom the concept of honor, courage and strength were put above all else. Athens of that time, with its beautiful statues and temples, was a stronghold of poetry, philosophy and politics, which dominated the intellectual life of Greece. However, such superiority was bound to end someday.

Raising children in Sparta

One of the principles that guided the inhabitants of Sparta was that the life of every person, from the moment of birth until death, belongs entirely to the state. The elders of the city were empowered to decide the fate of newborns - healthy and strong children were left in the city, and weak or sick children were thrown into the nearest abyss. So the Spartans tried to secure physical superiority over their enemies. Children who have passed the "natural selection" were brought up in conditions of severe discipline. At the age of 7, the boys were taken away from their parents and brought up separately, in small groups. The strongest and most courageous young men eventually became captains. The boys slept in the common rooms on hard and uncomfortable reed beds. Young Spartans ate simple food - a soup of pig blood, meat and vinegar, lentils and other coarse food.

One day, a wealthy guest who came to Sparta from Sybaris decided to taste the “black stew”, after which he said that now he understands why Spartan warriors lose their lives so easily. Often the boys were left hungry for several days, thereby inciting petty theft in the market. This was not done with the intent to make the young man a skilled thief, but only to develop ingenuity and dexterity - if he was caught stealing, he was severely punished. There are legends about a young Spartan who stole a young fox from the market, and when it was time for dinner, he hid it under his clothes. So that the boy would not be convicted of theft, he endured the pain from the fact that the fox gnawed his stomach, and died without issuing a single sound. Over time, the discipline only became tougher. All adult males between the ages of 20 and 60 were required to serve in the Spartan army. They were allowed to marry, but even after that, the Spartans continued to spend the night in barracks and eat in common canteens. Warriors were not allowed to own any property, especially gold and silver. Their money looked like iron bars of various sizes. Restraint extended not only to life, food and clothing, but also to the speech of the Spartans. In conversation, they were very laconic, limiting themselves to extremely concise and specific answers. This manner of communication in ancient Greece was called "conciseness" on behalf of the area in which Sparta was located.

Life of the Spartans

In general, as in any other culture, issues of life and nutrition shed light on interesting little things in people's lives. The Spartans, unlike the inhabitants of other Greek cities, did not attach much importance to food. In their opinion, food should not serve to satisfy, but only to saturate the warrior before the battle. The Spartans dined at a common table, while the products for lunch were handed over in the same amount - this was how the equality of all citizens was maintained. Neighbors on the table vigilantly watched each other, and if someone did not like the food, he was ridiculed and compared with the spoiled inhabitants of Athens. But when the time came for the battle, the Spartans changed dramatically: they put on the best outfits, and marched towards death with songs and music. From birth, they were taught to perceive each day as their last, not to be afraid and not to retreat. Death in battle was desirable and equated to the ideal end of a real man's life. There were 3 classes of inhabitants in Laconia. The first, most revered, were inhabitants of Sparta who had military training and participated in political life cities. Second class - perieki, or residents of surrounding small towns and villages. They were free, although they did not have any political rights. Engaged in trade and handicrafts, the perieks were a kind of "service personnel" for the Spartan army. lower class - helots, were serfs, and did not differ much from slaves. Due to the fact that their marriages were not controlled by the state, the helots were the most numerous category of inhabitants, and were kept from rebellion only thanks to the iron grip of their masters.

Political life of Sparta

One of the features of Sparta was that two kings were at the head of the state at the same time. They ruled jointly, serving as high priests and military leaders. Each of the kings controlled the activities of the other, which ensured the openness and fairness of the decisions of the authorities. The kings were subject to a "cabinet of ministers", consisting of five ethers or observers, who exercised general guardianship over laws and customs. The legislative branch consisted of a council of elders headed by two kings. The Council elected the most respected people of Sparta who have overcome the 60-year age barrier. Army of Sparta, despite the relatively modest number, was well trained and disciplined. Each warrior was filled with the determination to win or die - to return with a loss was unacceptable, and was an indelible shame for life. Wives and mothers, sending their husbands and sons to war, solemnly handed them a shield with the words: "Come back with a shield or on it." Over time, the militant Spartans captured most of the Peloponnese, significantly expanding the boundaries of possessions. A clash with Athens was inevitable. The rivalry came to a head during the Peloponnesian War, and led to the fall of Athens. But the tyranny of the Spartans caused the hatred of the inhabitants and mass uprisings, which led to the gradual liberalization of power. The number of specially trained warriors decreased, which allowed the inhabitants of Thebes, after about 30 years of Spartan oppression, to overthrow the power of the invaders.

History of Sparta interesting not only from the point of view of military achievements, but also the factors of the political and life structure. Courage, selflessness and the desire for victory of the Spartan warriors - these are the qualities that made it possible not only to restrain the constant attacks of enemies, but also to expand the boundaries of influence. The warriors of this small state easily defeated armies of many thousands and were a clear threat to the enemies. Sparta and its inhabitants, brought up on the principles of restraint and the rule of force, was the opposite of the educated and pampered rich life of Athens, which in the end led to a clash of these two civilizations.

At a time when cities grew in mighty Greece, philosophers pondered the nature of things, warlike Sparta lived its daily life. The main occupation of the inhabitants of the city has always been preparation for attacks. The specter of war hovered tirelessly over Sparta. The inhabitants were not going to make new trips, they wanted peace, but at the same time, in case of danger from other cities and countries, they wanted to be prepared. All the forces of the Spartans went to protect the conquered lands: the plains of Messenia and the valley of Evrota. Moreover, they guarded these areas not from their neighbors, from whom they were taken away, but from the slaves living in these territories and always ready for an uprising.

Ancient Sparta, numbering 9,000, had 200,000 helot slaves who bowed their heads to the ground, but never lost hope of liberation. So, for example, in 464, when the city was destroyed by an earthquake, the helots rushed there, but not in order to save the lives of their masters, but in order to kill them. But, thanks to the foresight of King Archidamus, who built a phalanx of the surviving soldiers, the slaves retreated. After that, it took more than 10 years of bloody war in order to bring the helots back into submission.

After the subjugation of the slaves, Ancient Sparta, which had Dorian kindred communities, Megara and Corinth, was involved in a war with Athens. After long battles, long battles, the militant state defeated the state of thinkers and philosophers. However, this brought not only great fame, but also great trouble. The fact is that immediately after the victory, hoplites came to power in Sparta, who despised the "rabble" and recognized only their own kind. Big merchants and representatives of the lower classes did not like this very much, they constantly made attempts to change the government. Therefore, the government of Sparta was forced to defend itself from the people.

Ancient Sparta, whose history keeps many military victories, was first defeated in 371 by the Thebans. In this battle was used new system building phalanxes ("oblique system"). During the battle, the king of the Spartans, Cleombrot, died, and the once fearless army succumbed to panic and fled from the battlefield. But the Thebans did not stop there. They moved to Sparta and showed the Spartans their combat power. As a result, the Thebans retook the Messenian Plain.

We can say that after this battle, Ancient Sparta began to lose its power. Among the once "equal" Spartans, "smaller" began to appear. Many citizens began to sell their lands, because. were in need. While men tried to maintain the military power of Sparta, women began to engage in usury. They bought land for debts. Thus, the stratification of society began, a prosperous aristocracy appeared. Less and less importance was given to the military training of the younger generation.

Only a hundred years later, the leaders of Sparta realized that there was no one to defend the city, and they made attempts to return the orders of bygone times. The land was redistributed, debts canceled, the ranks of the warriors were replenished with strong helots and parieks. But the aristocracy of the city was afraid of the new order, a revolution began, which called for the Macedonians. So in 221, the Spartans suffered another defeat, but not at the hands of the Thebans.

Spartan education system

In a warlike state, much attention was paid to protecting the city from internal and external enemies. For this, a system of education was developed, which consisted of 3 stages:

Teaching boys from 7 to 12 years old. At this stage, the children were divided into groups. They played and learned. But constantly the mentors made the children fight among themselves. So they revealed the strong and weak sides their subordinates.

From 12 to 20 years old, the boys were united in detachments, where they were led by older boys. At this stage, there were no games, all attention was paid to military training.

From 20 to 30 years old, the Spartans united in sissitia - groups that usually included about 15 people. They continued to engage in military training in their circle, but now they could start a family, do some household chores.

As you can see, Ancient Sparta paid great attention to the training of real warriors to protect their state.

from Plutarch:
 ANCIENT CUSTOMS OF THE SPARTANS

1. The elder, pointing to the door, warns everyone entering the sissitia:
"Not one word goes beyond them."

3. Spartans drink little in their sissits and leave without torches. Them
it is generally not permitted to use torches either in this case or when they are on other roads. It is ordained that they may learn boldly and fearlessly
walk the roads at night.

4. The Spartans studied literacy only for the needs of life. All other types of education were expelled from the country; not only the sciences themselves, but also people,
dealing with them. Education was aimed at ensuring that young men could
obey and courageously endure suffering, and die in battles or
seek victory.

5. The Spartans did not wear chitons, using a single himation for a whole year. They went about unwashed, abstaining for the most part both from baths and from anointing the body.

6. Young people slept together on silts on beds, which they themselves prepared from reeds growing near Eurotas, breaking it with their hands without any tools. In winter, they added to the reeds another plant, which they call lycophon, as it is believed that it is able to warm.

7. Among the Spartans, it was allowed to fall in love with honest-hearted boys, but it was considered a shame to enter into a relationship with them, because such a passion would be bodily, and not spiritual. A person accused of a shameful relationship with a boy was deprived of civil rights for life.

8. There was a custom according to which the older ones questioned the younger ones,
where and why they go, and scolded those who did not want to answer or came up with excuses. The one who, being present at the same time, does not choose the violator of this law, was subject to the same punishment as the violator himself. If he resented the punishment, he was subjected to even greater reproach.

9. If someone was guilty and was convicted, he had to go around
altar that was in the city, and at the same time sing a song composed in reproach to him, then
is to expose oneself to reproach.

10. Young Spartans had to honor and obey not only their own fathers, but also take care of all the elderly; when meeting, give way to them, get up, freeing up space, and also not make noise in their presence. Thus, everyone in Sparta disposed not only of his children, slaves, property, as was the case in other states, but also had the right to
neighbors property. This was done in order for people to act together and
treat other people's affairs as if they were their own.

11. If someone punished a boy and he told his father about it,
then, having heard the complaint, the father would consider it a shame not to punish the boy a second time.
The Spartans trusted each other and believed that none of the faithful fatherly laws
will not order the children anything bad.

12. Youths, whenever given the opportunity, steal food, thus learning to attack sleeping and lazy guards. Those caught are punished with starvation and flogging. Their dinner is so meager that they are forced to be impudent and stop at nothing to escape want.

13. This explains the lack of food: it was scarce so that the young men got used to constant hunger and could endure it. The Spartans believed that young men who received such an upbringing would be better prepared for war, as they would be able to live for a long time with almost no food, do without any seasonings and
eat whatever comes to hand. The Spartans believed that poor food makes young men healthier, they will not be prone to obesity, but will become tall and even beautiful. They believed that a lean physique provided the flexibility of all
members, and the heaviness and completeness prevent this.

14. The Spartans took music and singing very seriously. In their opinion, these arts were intended to encourage the spirit and mind of a person, to help him in his
actions. The language of Spartan songs was simple and expressive. They did not contain
nothing but praise for people who lived their lives nobly, died for Sparta and are revered as blessed, as well as condemnation of those who fled from the battlefield, oh
who were said to have led a miserable and miserable life. In songs
praised the valor inherent in every age.

17. The Spartans did not allow anyone to change the rules in any way.
ancient musicians. Even Terpander, one of the best and oldest kyfareds
of his time, praising the exploits of heroes, even his ephors were punished, and his cithara was pierced with nails because, trying to achieve a variety of sounds, he pulled an additional string on it. The Spartans only liked simple melodies. When Timothy took part in the Carnean festival, one of the ephors, taking up a sword, asked him on which side it would be better to cut off the strings on his instrument, added in excess of the seven.

18. Lycurgus put an end to the superstitions that surrounded the funeral, allowing burial within the city and near the sanctuaries, and decided not to count anything,
associated with the funeral, filth. He forbade putting anything with the dead
property, but allowed only to wrap it in plum leaves and a purple veil and bury everyone in the same way. He forbade inscriptions on grave monuments, with the exception of those erected by those who died in the war, and
also weeping and sobs at funerals.

19. The Spartans were not allowed to leave the borders of their homeland, so that they could not
to join the foreign customs and way of life of people who have not received the Spartan
education.

20. Lycurgus introduced xenolasia - the expulsion of foreigners from the country, so that when they come to
country, they did not teach the local citizens anything bad.

21. Which of the citizens did not go through all the stages of raising boys, did not have
civil rights.

22. Some argued that if any of the foreigners endured a way of life,
established by Lycurgus, then it could be included in the assigned to him from the very
moira started.

23. Trade was banned. If there was a need, it was possible to use the neighbors' servants as their own, as well as dogs and horses, unless the owners needed them. In the field, too, if someone was lacking in something, he opened, if necessary, someone else's warehouse, took what he needed, and then, putting back the seals, left.

24. During the wars, the Spartans wore red clothes: firstly, they
considered this color more courageous, and secondly, it seemed to them that the blood-red color should terrify opponents who had no combat experience. In addition, if one of the Spartans is injured, it will not be noticeable to the enemies, since the similarity of colors will hide the blood.

25. If the Spartans succeed in defeating the enemy by cunning, they sacrifice a bull to the god Ares, and if the victory is won in an open battle, then a rooster. In this way, they teach their commanders to be not just militant, but also to master the art of generalship.

26. To their prayers, the Spartans also add a request to grant them the strength to endure injustice.

27. In prayers, they ask to adequately reward noble people and more
nothing.

28. They venerate Aphrodite armed and in general depict all gods and goddesses with a spear in her hand, for they believe that military prowess is inherent in all of them.

29. Lovers of proverbs often cite the words: "Do not call on the gods without putting your hands on it," that is: you need to call on the gods only if you set to work and work, and
otherwise not worth it.

30. The Spartans show drunken helots to children in order to turn them away from drunkenness.

31. The Spartans had a custom not to knock on the door, but to speak out from behind the door.

33. The Spartans do not watch either comedies or tragedies, so as not to hear something said in jest or in earnest that goes against their laws.

34. When the poet Archilochus came to Sparta, he was expelled the same day, as he wrote in a poem that throwing down weapons is better than dying:

The Saian now proudly wears my impeccable shield:
Willy-nilly, I had to throw it to me in the bushes.
I myself escaped death. And let it disappear
My shield. As good as a new one I can get.

35. In Sparta, access to the sanctuaries is open equally to both boys and girls.

36. The ephors punished Skyraphids because many offended him.

37. The Spartans executed a man only because, wearing rags, he adorned
his colored stripe.

38. They reprimanded one young man only because he knew the road leading from the gymnasium to Pylaea.

39. The Spartans expelled Cephisophon from the country, who claimed that he was able to talk all day on any topic; they believed that a good orator's speech should be proportionate to the importance of the matter.

40. Boys in Sparta were whipped on the altar of Artemis Orthia during
whole day, and they often died under the blows. The boys are proud and cheerful
they competed to see which of them would endure the beatings longer and more worthily; the winner was praised, and he became famous. This competition was called "diamastigosis", and it took place every year.

41. Along with other valuable and happy institutions provided by Lycurgus for his fellow citizens, it was also important that the lack of employment was not considered reprehensible by them. The Spartans were forbidden to engage in any kind of crafts, and the need for business activities and in hoarding money
they were not. Lycurgus made the possession of wealth both unenviable and inglorious. The helots, cultivating their land for the Spartans, paid them a dues fixed in advance; demanding a large rent was forbidden under pain of damnation. This was done so that the helots, receiving benefits, worked with pleasure, and the Spartans would not strive to accumulate.

42. Spartans were forbidden to serve as sailors and fight at sea. However, later they participated in naval battles, but, having achieved dominance at sea, they abandoned it, noting that the morals of citizens change from this for the worse.
However, morals continued to deteriorate in this and in everything else. Before, if
one of the Spartans accumulated wealth, the accumulator was sentenced to
of death. After all, even Alkamen and Theopompus were predicted by an oracle: "The passion for the accumulation of wealth will someday destroy Sparta." Despite this prediction, Lysander, having taken Athens, brought home a lot of gold and silver, and the Spartans accepted him and surrounded him with honors. While the state adhered to the laws of Lycurgus and given oaths, it excelled in Hellas for five hundred years, distinguished by good morals and enjoying a good reputation. However, gradually, as the laws of Lycurgus began to be violated, self-interest and the desire for enrichment penetrated the country, and the power of the state decreased, and the allies, for the same reason, began to be hostile to the Spartans. Such was the state of affairs when, after the victory of Philip at Chaeronea, all the Hellenes proclaimed him commander-in-chief on land and sea, and later, after the destruction of Thebes, recognized his son Alexander. Only the Lacedaemonians,
although their city was not fortified with walls and due to constant wars they had very few people left, so to defeat this state that had lost its military power
it was not difficult at all, only the Lacedaemonians, thanks to the fact that weak sparks of the Lycurgus institutions were still glimmering in Sparta, dared not to accept
participation in the military enterprise of the Macedonians, not to recognize either these or those who ruled in
subsequent years of the Macedonian kings, do not participate in the Sanhedrin and do not pay
foros. They did not depart completely from the Lycurgus institutions until they
own citizens, seizing tyrannical power, did not reject at all Lifestyle ancestors and thus did not bring the Spartans closer to other peoples.
Having abandoned their former glory and the free expression of their thoughts, the Spartans
began to drag out a slave existence, and now, like the rest of the Hellenes, they turned out to be
under Roman rule.