What studies graphics in Russian definition. Graphic work
Target lectures - give general characteristics Russian graphics, consider its principles.
1. The concept of graphics. Graphics sections.
2. Features of Russian graphics. Characteristics of the Russian alphabet.
3. Principles of Russian graphics.
4. Deviations from the positional principle of Russian graphics.
1. The concept of graphics. Graphic sections
The term graphics (Greek grapho “I write”) in linguistics has several meanings: 1) a set of descriptive means by which oral speech is transmitted in writing (letters, punctuation marks, etc.); 2) a system of relationships between letters and sounds.
The graphics of the Russian language is divided into 2 parts (subsections).
The tasks of the 1st part include the description and study of graphic means that are used in the transmission of oral speech in writing. Among graphic means, alphabetic and non-alphabetic means are distinguished. Non-alphabetic means include punctuation, accent, italics, underlining, and others.
The second subsection of graphics examines the historical relationship between the letters and sounds of the language.
The main graphic means is the letter, so the central part of the first subsection is the theory of the alphabet. An alphabet is a collection of letters arranged in a certain order. The modern Russian alphabet is a modification of the ancient Slavic alphabet, named after its compiler Cyrillic. The Cyrillic alphabet was based on the Greek uncial script (i.e. in large letters in solemn books). The Cyrillic alphabet consisted of 43 letters, of which 24 letters were borrowed from the Greek alphabet, and 19 letters were invented by the authors to convey Slavic sounds: “beeches”, “live”, “zelo”, “worm”, “shta”, “is”, "yusy", "yat", etc.
The Slavic alphabet came to Russia at the time of baptism and became widespread not only among the Eastern, but also among the Western Slavs.
Since then, Russian writing has gone through a long and difficult path of development. Over more than a thousand years of history, quantitative and qualitative changes have occurred: doublet Cyrillic letters, such as b and b, have been lost, their functions have changed, new ones have appeared. There are 33 letters in the modern Russian alphabet, of which 18 are of Greek origin (a, c, g, e, e, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, p, s, t, f, x) , 11 Slavic letters (b, g, c, h, w, u, y, u, s, b, b) and 4 letters proper Russian (d, e, i, e).
2. Characteristics of the Russian alphabet
The modern Russian alphabet, like any other, is characterized by several aspects: composition, order of letters, style, name, sound value.
It is known that there are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet. But in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” in 4 volumes, the letter I is named the 32nd and last, and in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” in 17 volumes, the number 31 is missing. This is due to the use of the youngest letter Y. For the first time, this letter was used writer N.M. Karamzin in the word tears in 1797, replacing the diagraphic combination io. Officially included in the alphabet since 1942, in practice it is regarded by many as optional. This is manifested in the fact that in the manuscript and print it is replaced by the letter e without diacritical points. Thus, the number of letters in the alphabet and in practice partly diverges.
Each letter in the alphabet occupies its strictly defined place, which is of great practical importance when compiling dictionaries, catalogs, and cards. Each letter theoretically has four graphic options: two printed ones - uppercase (capital), lowercase (small) - and two handwritten images. Separate images of the same letter are called allographs, or varieties of the same grapheme. Therefore, a grapheme is an abstract unit of graphics that has four variants (compare with the concept of a phoneme allophone).
The difference between printed and handwritten letters does not have a special function. But the difference between the uppercase and lowercase versions is functional: the capital letter highlights proper names, poetic lines, the beginning of the text, etc. However, not all Russian graphemes have four options: letters separating hard and soft characters do not have a capital version; very rarely in Russian graphics uses the capital version of the letters Y and Y, and only to convey foreign words.
Describing the letters of the Russian alphabet, it should be noted that the letters have individual and complex names that differ little from other words of the Russian language. In the course of the history of graphics, the letters changed their names, modern names were borrowed from the Romans. According to their morphological affiliation, the modern names of letters are indeclinable nouns.
Individual letter names are different type depending on the indication of the sound value of the letter: 1) the initial variety (the beginning of the name indicates the sound value of the letter: “be”, “ve”, “de”, etc.); 2) the final variety (the end of the name indicates the meaning of the letter: "ef", "em"); 3) global name (the sound value is indicated by the whole name: “a”, “o”, “y”).
Complex names designate classes of letters - consonants and vowels. The letters ъ, ь do not denote sounds, therefore they are called voiceless.
By value, all letters of the Russian alphabet are divided into single-valued and multi-valued. Unambiguous - these are those letters that denote only one phoneme, have one sound value. These include a, o, y, e, s, c, h, w, u, d, b.
Multi-valued letters have more than one meaning and allow double reading. These are consonant letters denoting paired sounds in terms of hardness-softness, as well as vowels i, e, e, i, u. For example, the letter "em" can denote both a hard and soft phoneme: in the word mother, "em" denotes<м>, and in the word mint -<м’>. The letters i, e, e, u denote two phonemes at the beginning of a word, after a vowel, after dividing hard and soft characters. Not having its own sound meaning, the letter ь performs several functions, therefore it is conditionally also referred to as polysemantic. The ambiguity of letters is closely connected with the positional principle of Russian graphics.
3. Principles of Russian graphics
Russian graphics is based on two main principles - phonemic and positional.
The essence of the phonemic principle of Russian graphics comes down to the fact that the letter does not denote a sound, but a phoneme. But there are more phonemes in Russian than letters. Another principle helps to smooth out such a discrepancy - positional (syllabic, letter-combining), which allows you to clarify the sound meaning of a letter by means of another one following it.
The positional principle of Russian graphics is its great advantage, since thanks to it the transmission of hard and soft consonants is halved in writing (for example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there are special letters for denoting soft consonants: љ-soft l, њ-soft n). The positional principle is used to convey the hardness / softness of consonant phonemes and to indicate
The positional principle for the transfer of hardness / softness of consonant phonemes is implemented in the following way:
1) at the end of the word, the softness of the consonant is indicated by a soft consonant, and the hardness by a space: coal - angle;
2) the softness of a consonant before a hard consonant is conveyed by a soft sign: free - wave;
3) the softness and hardness of a consonant in front of vowels is distinguished with the help of these vowels: single-valued letters indicate the hardness of the consonant phoneme, and multi-valued vowels indicate softness: mayor, mor, onion, lacquer, bast, but mel, chalk, mil, crumpled.
However, the positional principle in Russian graphics is not always maintained.
4. Deviations from the positional principle of Russian graphics
There are two types of deviations from the positional principle of Russian graphics: violations and restrictions. Violations are a type of digression in which the spelling does not match the reading. Violations are created by spelling (see the next section about it) and are observed primarily in foreign words.
Violations in the designation of the phoneme
1) designation
2) the use of the combination -yo– between vowels: district, major, mayonnaise;
3) the use of the combination -yo- instead of yo: medallion, broth;
4) redundant designation
Violations associated with the designation of softness relate to the use of the letter e after consonants in foreign words. In Russian, the letter e should indicate the softness of the preceding consonant, but in a number of foreign words the consonant is pronounced firmly: stand, manager, aesthetics, phonetics, etc.
Violations can be observed in complex abbreviated words: medical institute, chief legal adviser.
The limitations include cases of designation of unpaired consonants in terms of hardness / softness.
It is known that the consonant letters zh, sh, ts in Russian always denote solid sounds, so after them one should write vowels e, o, u, s, a, while we write e, e, and (tin, six, whole, silk, gutter, live, sew, circus, etc.). These deviations are explained by the fact that in the Old Russian language the consonants zh, sh, ts were soft, i.e. such spellings reflected their pronunciation in the past, therefore they are called traditional.
Literature
2. Grigoryeva T.M. Russian writing: from graphics reform to spelling reform. – Krasnoyarsk, 1996.
3. Grigoryeva T.M. Russian language: Orthoepy. Graphic arts. Spelling. History and modernity: Proc. allowance. - M., 2004.
4. Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling. - M., 1991.
5. Modern Russian literary language. Theory. Analysis of language units / Ed. E.I. Dibrova. - M., 2001.
6. Modern Russian language / Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. - M., 1999.
7. Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V. Modern Russian literary language: At 3 hours - M., 1987.
test questions
1. What subsections does the graphic consist of? What are they studying?
2. What is a grapheme and how does it differ from a letter?
3. What is the phonemic principle of Russian graphics?
4. What is the positional principle? In what cases is it applied?
5. What are the violations in the operation of the positional principle connected with?
6. Is the positional principle observed for the designation of unpaired consonants in Russian?
Lecture "Russian spelling"
1. Spelling. Sections of Russian orthography.
2. Spelling and spelling rule. Spelling types.
3. Principles of the main section of orthography. A different approach to the consideration of the principles from the positions of the IDF and LFS.
4. Merged, separate and hyphen spellings. principles of this section.
5. Principles for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
6. Transferring part of a word to another line. Phonetic and morphological bases of transfer; portability restrictions.
7. Graphic abbreviations. Principles and types of graphic abbreviations.
1. Sections of Russian spelling
Spelling (Greek orthos - "straight, correct" and grapho - "I write") is a system of spelling rules. The term spelling, often used as a synonym for the term "spelling", is understood more broadly and also includes rules for the use of punctuation marks.
Russian spelling is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five sections: 1) the rules for the transmission of letters of the phonemic composition of the word, its individual forms, 2) the rules for continuous, semi-continuous and separate spellings, 3) the rules for the use of capital letters, 4) word hyphenation, 5) the rules for abbreviating words.
Spelling sections are large groups of spelling rules associated with different types difficulties in translating words into writing.
2. Spelling and spelling rule. Spelling types
Spelling as an independent section has its own units - spelling and spelling rule.
A spelling is a spelling that is selected from a number of possible ones and meets the spelling rule. Spelling occurs where several spellings are possible and, consequently, errors. In order not to make mistakes in spelling, it is necessary to apply a spelling rule, which is an instruction containing a condition for choosing the correct spelling. For example, in order to correctly write an unstressed vowel at the root of a word, you need to use the rule that recommends changing the word or picking up a single root with a stressed vowel: enlightenment - light.
Spelling types differ in each section of orthography.
1. The spelling of the first section is a letter: for example, deaf and voiced consonants at the end and at the root of a word, n and nn in adjective suffixes, suffixes -ik / -ek in nouns and others.
2. The spelling when choosing a continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling is a contact (continuous), a hyphen (semi-continuous) and a space (separate).
3. In the section considering the use of an uppercase or lowercase letter, the spelling is an uppercase and lowercase letter: Sharik (dog's name) and a balloon.
4. The orthogram of the fourth section is a dash when transferring words from one line to another.
5. Graphic abbreviations in Russian are varied and varied.
3. Principles of the main section of spelling
Russian orthography is a harmonious system in which, according to the views generally accepted in Russian linguistics, one principle prevails - the uniform spelling of a morpheme, regardless of how it is pronounced due to certain phonetic conditions. This principle is called morphological.
The area of application of this principle is assessed differently by representatives of the St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and Moscow phonological schools (P(L)FS and MFS). In educational and scientific-methodical literature, the morphological principle of writing is identified with morphophonemic and phonemic, or phonemic, principles. These names reveal the essence of the morphological principle more deeply, emphasizing that the spelling of a morpheme is predetermined by its phonemic composition: Namely, the uniform graphic appearance of a morpheme in writing is achieved by sequential transfer of its constituent phonemes (both vowels and consonants), the main form of which is expressed in strong positions .
For example, in the words kosa, kosa, mow, kosari, mowing in pronunciation, the root morpheme kos- has different kind: [braid], [k / \ s], [k / \ s '], [ks], [k / \ s ', and the letter is depicted the same way. This is the essence of the morphological principle. Writing consonant phonemes<к>and<с>is determined by their pronunciation in a strong position (before a vowel): for a consonant<к>a strong position is its position in all the given words, and for<с>- in the words braids, braids, mowers, mowers. In the word mowing<с>is in a weak position and goes to [h ']; for the vowel [o] - in the word braids (i.e., under the
rhenium). Therefore, the spelling of the morpheme kos- is based on the phonemic series, or rather, on the strong phonemes heading the phonemic series. Phonemes included in the same phonemic series [s - s - s "- z", as well as o - /\ -b] are indicated in writing by one letter (respectively, s and o). This is how a single graphic appearance of morphemes is created as carriers of certain meanings.
The morphological principle finds application in writing all morphemes: 1) prefixes: the prefix ot- is written in the word beat off, because it is checked by another word, where [o] and [t] are in a strong position (took away [relative]); 2) suffixes: in the word warmth [t'pl / \ ta] - the suffix -ot (a), the test word drowsiness [dr'iemot]; 3) endings: in the word bank [bank] ending -a, the test word spring [v'iEsna].
The morphological principle of Russian spelling is its invaluable advantage. It creates great convenience for the use of written speech. Thanks to him, a lexical unit does not exist in isolation for a person who writes or speaks Russian; and in a complex of connections with single-root or single-structural words, in the aggregate of forms of inflection and word formation. Constant patterns of morphological parts of the word due to frequent repetition are easily remembered, understood, which has a positive effect on mastering the rules of Russian spelling.
The morphological principle creates favorable conditions for distinguishing words in the language that are identical in pronunciation (homophones and homoforms), providing them with a different graphic image (pond and rod, young and hammer, roses and grew, etc.).
There are few deviations from this principle in Russian. These are the so-called phonetic, traditional and differentiating spellings.
Phonetic spellings
The basis for phonetic writing is pronunciation: we write what we hear. According to this phonetic principle, letters do not denote a phoneme, but a real sound. The number of spellings that meet this principle is very small. In Russian, spellings of prefixes ending in -з(-с) are phonetic: bez-, voz-(vz-), iz-, bottom-, times-, through-(through-). Before voiced consonants, vowels and sonorants, prefixes are written with the final letter z, in other cases - with: soulless, excite, cloudless, jump, divide, but endless, exclaim, frighten. Phonetic spellings include the spelling of words with s after ts: gypsies, chicken, tiptoe, tsyts
The spelling of the following letters is consistent with the pronunciation:
a) the letters o under stress in the suffixes of nouns - shepherd boy, wolf cub, small river; in the suffix of adjectives -ov: penny, brocade; in the adverb suffix -o after sizzling and c: fresh, hot;
b) the letters ы in the suffix -yn and in the endings of adjectives: sistersin, Lisitsyn, broad-faced;
c) letters o under stress in the endings of nouns and adjectives after hissing and c: with a knife, a key.
Traditional spellings
Traditional spellings include spellings that have long been established in the language and have come down to our days by tradition. From the point of view of living linguistic connections, they are inexplicable, since they are frozen ancient phonetic phenomena of the language and require historical or etymological references. Therefore, such writings can be called historical, or etymological. Traditionally written:
1. The letter ь in the verbal forms of the second person: read, write, walk, draw.
2. The letter and after hissing w, w and c: live, thin, giraffe, encrypt, shell.
3. The letter g in the endings of the genitive case of the singular of masculine and neuter adjectives, pronouns and ordinal numbers (kind, mine, first).
4. According to tradition, vocabulary words are written: cow, dog, station, ax, sorcerer, feeling, carrot, holiday.
5. In Russian orthography, there are traditional spellings of alternating roots: sunbathing - sunburn), glow - dawn, touch - touch, etc.
Differentiating spellings
Differentiating (symbolic, hieroglyphic) spellings are used in Russian in order to distinguish between words that sound the same. For example, the nouns company and campaign sound the same, but have different meaning(in the first case - this is a small group of people, in the second - an event), which are fixed on the letter with various graphic images.
Differentiating spellings also include such pairs of words as the ball “big dance evening” and the score “assessment”, the coccyx “ Bottom part spine" and the red-footed falcon "a small bird from the falcon family".
4. Merged, separated and hyphenated spellings
In the Russian spelling system there are fused, separate and semi-fused (hyphenated) spellings. They are a reflection in writing of those changes that occur in the lexical system of the language (therefore, this issue is more related to vocabulary than to spelling).
Complex, diverse processes of changing lexical units, losing their independent lexical meaning and turning into a new lexical unit are not always consistently reflected in spelling, that is, there is no complete correspondence between the facts of a living language and writing.
Continuous spellings are used to consolidate such complex lexical formations that represent one single semantic whole, so parts of the word are written together, and individual words are written separately. For transitional or obscure cases, a hyphen is used. The hyphen is both a connecting and separating sign.
The rules of this section are among the most difficult. The disorder of the rules of this section of spelling is partly due to the complexity and unresolved problem of distinguishing between a word and a phrase. The underdevelopment of the theory is manifested in the fuzziness of practical solutions. The current rules are also based on the distinction between a term and a non-term: terms are often written together, and non-terms - separately or with a hyphen.
The problem of continuous or hyphenated writing has become especially acute in recent decades. This is explained by the emergence of a large number of new compound words and scientific and technical terms.
The main principles on which continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling is built are: lexical-syntactic, word-formative-grammatical and traditional.
The lexico-syntactic principle is based on the distinction between words and phrases: a ward of seriously wounded soldiers and a seriously wounded in the arm. According to this principle, those complex adjectives that are formed from subordinating phrases are written together: railway line from railway.
The word-formation-grammatical principle establishes a continuous, hyphenated spelling according to a formal feature - the presence / absence of a complex adjective suffix in the first part: in the presence of a suffix, the adjective is written with a hyphen (fruit and berry, but fruit berry).
The traditional principle is associated with memorizing the spelling of derivative prepositions, adverbs: due to, during, under the arm, without looking back.
5. Capital and lowercase letters and principles of their use In ancient times, capital letters were written only at the beginning of the book, sometimes - at the beginning of a paragraph. In the XVI century. in connection with the division of the text, capital letters began to be used at the beginning of the text and after a period at the beginning of the sentence. There were no rules for the use of capital letters. The grammar of Milety Smotrytsky reflects the first attempt to establish such rules (to capitalize the beginning of a poem, proper names, names of sciences), but they were not widely used.
Later in the book "Russian spelling" Ya.K. Grot proposed rules for the use of capital letters, which for the most part have survived to this day.
The use of capital letters in modern Russian is regulated by a number of rules based on the following principles:
1. The syntactic principle, according to which the first word is written with a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence, a poetic line;
2. The morphological principle distinguishes between writing own and common sentences (Eagle - eagle);
3. The semantic principle highlights words endowed with special pathos, symbolism: New Year(name of the holiday), you (respectful treatment);
4. The word-formation principle is manifested in the choice of a capital letter for abbreviations of an alphabetic type: UN, MSU.
6. Principles of word wrap
In Russian spelling, rules have been established that determine the transfer of words according to their word-formation structure.
It is impossible to break a monosyllabic prefix when transferring, to separate one vowel or consonant from the root. For example _______, you need to transfer: modern (but not modern), beat (but not break), stand (but do not stand).
In non-derivative words, arbitrary division into parts is possible when they are transferred: de-bri, wilds; do-ska, dos-ka. You can’t leave on a line or transfer to another line a part of a word that does not form a syllable, or one vowel: country (but not country-a), revolution (but not revolution).
Thus, transfer rules are based on two principles: morphological (morphemic, taking into account the structure of the word) and phonetic (based on phonetic division). Incorrect hyphenation makes it difficult to understand and read the text, so it is recommended to hyphenate words by morphemes and syllables. In addition, the rules of word hyphenation to a certain extent help the assimilation of their morphemic structure.
7. Graphic abbreviations
Abbreviations are of two types. The first type is non-graphic abbreviations, these are units of both written and oral speech. These include compound words, abbreviations: philology, salary; RF, CIS, university.
The second type is graphic abbreviations, characteristic only of written speech: p. - page, zd - factory, k / t - cinema. Graphic abbreviations are used to save space and time when writing.
The principles of abbreviation are as follows:
1) the initial part of the word cannot be omitted; for example, the word factory cannot be abbreviated like this: “brika”, “rika”;
2) at least two letters are omitted. The abbreviation "factory", "factory" is unacceptable. Exception Yu. - the south is explained by analogy: p. - north, c. -east, w. - west;
3) the part of the word preceding the omitted one cannot consist of a combination of letters with the last vowel, as well as ь, ъ. Correct: K., Kar., Karelian (Karelian), f-ka (factory); wrong: “ka.”, “kare.”, “karel.”, “fa-ka”;
4) one linearly consecutive part of letters is usually omitted.
It is impossible to abbreviate "fbrka", since in this case the letters a, and that are not immediately following each other are omitted. There are exceptions to this principle such as a million - a million, a billion - a billion, a column. - column, mon. - Monday and a number of others.
Depending on the methods of education, six types of graphic abbreviations are distinguished:
1) dot abbreviations are formed by omitting the right part of the word (less often - the middle) and putting a full stop after the remaining part: y. - year, p. - page, eg. - for example, Sat. - Saturday. Doubling the first consonant letter while omitting the rest of the word denotes the plural: вв. - centuries, pp. – points;
2) hyphen abbreviations - those in which a hyphen is put instead of the omitted middle part of the word: district - district, zd - plant, int - institute;
3) oblique abbreviations are used when abbreviating phrases or compound words. Instead of the omitted first part, an oblique line is put: p / o - post office, used - used, cotton - cotton;
4) italic abbreviations are highlighted in a special font - in italics: g - gram, l - liter, dm - decimeter;
5) zero abbreviations are not graphically highlighted, they do not graphically differ from non-abbreviated words: s - second, m - meter, kg - kilogram;
6) combined abbreviations - the result of applying several methods of abbreviation: w.-d. – railway, rpm. - revolutions per minute, centner per hectare.
Literature
1. Bogomazov G.M. Modern Russian literary language: Phonetics: Proc. allowance. - M., 2001.
2. Grigoryeva T.M. Russian language: Orthoepy. Graphic arts. Spelling. History and Modernity: Proc. allowance. - M., 2004.
3. Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling. - M., 1991.
4. Modern Russian literary language. Theory. Analysis of language units / Ed. E.I. Dibrova. - M., 2001.
5. Modern Russian language / Ed. V.A. Beloshapkova. - M., 1999.
6. Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V. Modern Russian literary language: At 3 hours - M., 1987.
test questions
1. What sections does Russian spelling consist of?
2. How is the basic principle of spelling understood from the perspective of the IDF? P(L)FS?
3. What is the effect of the lexical-syntactic and word-formation-grammatical principles?
4. What are the basic principles for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters?
Speech sounds are transmitted in writing using special graphic characters. - letters. Writing in letters, each of which usually denotes a separate sound of speech, is called sound. Sound writing exists today among most peoples of the world. Russian writing is also sound.
A section of the science of language that studies descriptive signs (graphic means) and the relationship between letters and sounds, is called graphics (Greek. grapho - I write).
The main graphic means of the Russian language are letters. In addition to letters, graphic means include accent, hyphen, punctuation, apostrophe and some other signs.
In the graphics of different languages, the same letters are found, but they can denote different sounds. So Russian here will be in latin b ohm.
There are 33 letters in Russian writing. The letters arranged in a certain order make up the alphabet. The sequence of letters in the alphabet is conditional, but it is very important to know it, since various lists, catalogs are compiled alphabetically, words are placed in the dictionary.
Each letter has its own name. You need to know the names of the letters in order to be able to correctly read some compound words, for example: RSFSR(er-es-ef-es-er), Moscow State University(um-ge-woo).
Aa Bb Vv Gg Dd Her Her Zhzh Zz Ii Yi Kk Ll
a be ve ge de e yo zhe ze and y short ka el
Mm Nn Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Ff Xx Ts Hh Shsh
em en o pe er es te u ef ha tse che sha
Shch bj Yy bb Ee Yuyu Yaya
shcha hard s (ery) soft e reversible yu I
sign (er) sign (er)
Each letter has two varieties: uppercase (large) and lowercase (small). There are some differences between letters in printed and
handwritten texts, for example: Tm and TP, t.
To designate vowels, 10 vowels are used: a, e, e, i, o, y, s, e, u, i. Consonant sounds are indicated by 21 consonant letters: b, c, d, e, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, u, y. The letters ъ and ь do not represent any sounds. b - indicates the softness of the preceding consonant. Both of these letters are used as special separator characters. In words there and tiger letter t used in its main meaning, since replacing it with any other letter will lead to a change or complete destruction of the word (cf. there, ladies, myself, din). In words gave and separated letter t used in a secondary sense. Its replacement by the letter d will not change the pronunciation. In these words, the letter t denotes the sounds [d] and [d 1], arising from the operation of the law of assimilation. Vowels can also be used in the primary and secondary meanings. In the word bridge, the letter o is used in the main meaning, and in the words bridges and pavement - in a secondary one.
Unambiguous and two-digit letters.
2. The Russian alphabet has one-digit and two-digit letters. Letters that have one basic sound meaning are unambiguous. These are vowels a, o, u, s, uh and consonants w, w, w, h, c, d. Letters w, w, c in the main meaning, solid consonants are always conveyed in writing (they do not have soft pairs); letters h, w in the main meaning, soft consonants are conveyed in writing (they do not have hard pairs). letter th the variant of the phoneme] (and non-syllabic) is transmitted in writing, occurring at the end of a word or syllable after a vowel sound before a consonant: frost, sanatorium, slender.
The hardness or softness of a consonant is indicated by a vowel usually written after it: a, u, o, s, uh indicate the firmness of consonants, I,yu, yo, i, e- for softness. For example, in the word dawn the letter a stands for the sound [l] and indicates hardness [h], and the letter I denotes the sound [a] and indicates softness [p 1].
The term "graphics" (from Greek graphikos - written) is used in two meanings. It is called both a set of means of written fixation of the elements of sounding speech, and a special branch of science that characterizes the relationship between graphic signs and sounds.
Graphic means include letters, punctuation marks and various superscripts - stress, a dot over ё, an arc over й and in printed texts apostrophes (a comma in the form of a line above a line that replaces a missing vowel).
Each phonetic letter has a certain alphabet (from the Greek names of letters - alpha and vita), or alphabet, a list of letters arranged in a certain order. The alphabet is of great practical importance, in particular, it predetermines the arrangement of words in dictionaries and reference books.
The Russian alphabet has 33 letters. Most of them appear in two varieties - lowercase and uppercase (with the exception of ъ and ь, which are used only in the form of lowercase letters).
The origin of the alphabet is associated with one of the forms of the Slavic alphabet - Cyrillic. This alphabet received such a name in honor of the first enlightener of the Slavs, the creator of Slavic writing, Konstantin the Philosopher, who received his second name, Cyril, when he was tonsured a monk. In its original form, this alphabet included forty-three (43) letters, of which 24 were borrowed from the Greek uncial script (used mainly in early sacred texts). 19 other letters were specially created taking into account the peculiarities of the sound structure of the Slavic languages.
Subsequent changes in the sound system further complicated the relationship between letters and sounds.
At present, these relations in Russian are as follows:
- 1. Most of the letters of our graphics in each this moment conveys or denotes one well-defined sound.
- 2. There are letters that do not represent any sounds.
- 3. Some letters are capable of simultaneously designating two sounds. It's me, e, e, yu, sometimes.
- 4. A number of letters are characterized by potential sound ambiguity (cf., for example, the sound of the letter c in the following positions: a) [s] - [sa?t], [su?t]; b) [s"], [s" a? du], [s" ielu?]; c) [s], [s "d" e? lt "], d) [s"] - [pro? "b]; e) [w?], [w? s? t "], e) [w?] - [w? e? h "]. Only the letters y, c, h, w, d are unambiguous.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics has developed historically as a result of the regular softening of the majority of consonants in strictly defined positions (before the front vowels [i], [e]).
The syllabic principle is violated only when denoting consonants that are not included in the correlative series in terms of hardness and softness. This applies to the always hard consonants w, w, q and the always soft consonants h, u. When writing vowels after these letters, deviations from this rule are observed. These deviations are as follows:
- 1. After the solid consonants w, w, q, vowels and, e are written, instead of the vowels required by the syllabic principle s, e: circus (instead of circus), sew (instead of sht), six (instead of six), etc.
- 2. After soft consonants h, u, vowels a, y, o are written instead of the required i, u, e: tea (instead of chai), pike (instead of pike), ball (instead of a ball). One of significant benefits The syllabic principle is that it reduces the number of required letters by 15 units. It is important to emphasize that the rules of graphics establish only possible relationships between letters and sounds. Having mastered these skills, we will not learn a completely correct letter, since from the point of view of graphics, writing input and fhot is quite possible. The rules, according to which only one of all possible spellings is legitimized and chosen, is established by spelling.
Graphics is a branch of the science of writing that defines 1) an inventory of graphic means of a language (alphabetic and non-alphabetic characters; 2) a system of correspondence between a graphic means (denoting) and a unit of sound (denoted: sound or phoneme). The main graphic tool is a system of letters.
A set of letters arranged in a prescribed order is called an alphabet, or alphabet. The first, the Cyrillic alphabet, created at the end of the 9th century, contained 43 letters. The modern Russian alphabet has 33 letters: 10 vowels, 21 consonants, Kommersant and b. The main trend in the history of Russian graphics is thus obvious: the history of Russian graphics is called the history of the struggle against superfluous letters. Significant and purposeful transformations of Russian writing are associated with the era of Peter I, although even before that, letters were abolished that completely lost their sound correspondences in Russian - the so-called "yus". The alphabet, created with the direct participation of Peter I, was called the civil seal or citizen. By the decision of Peter I, the alphabet was reduced by 3 letters, letters were introduced E, I, At, the reforms of Peter I, as it were, opened up the very possibility of changing and improving writing, and after him the work of simplifying the alphabet was continued. A great contribution to the history of Russian graphics was made by the famous masters of the word - N.M. Karamzin, M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky and other writers, "academic" scientists - linguists: F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A.I. Sobolevsky, L.V. Shcherba. Baudouin de Courtenay (the creator of the doctrine of the phoneme) also formulated the main provisions related to the theory of writing. It was he who introduced the concepts of the alphabet, graphics and spelling into linguistics. Concerning state of the art studying the alphabet, it should be noted that in the Russian language there are still letters, the need for which can be argued. In particular, this b .
In the modern Russian alphabet, each letter has 2 options: printed and handwritten, and 2 options for letter names - individual and complex. Individual vowel names are of 2 types: 1) letter names a, and, oh, u, s, uh consist of one vowel sound; 2) letter names e, e, u, i consist of a vowel sound and the consonant preceding it [ j]. Types of names of consonants: 1 - for letters b (be), c, d, e, g, h, p, t, c and h; 2 - letter names l (el), m (em), n, r, s, f(softness [ l] in the name of the letter l is explained by the fact that in Latin, from where the name is borrowed, it corresponds to “semi-soft” [ l]); 3 - letters k (ka), x, w, w. Letter Y from the second half of the 19th century. called "And short". Letters Kommersant and b in the scientific literature, in accordance with tradition, they are called “er” and “er”. In school textbooks - a "solid sign" (the name arose when Kommersant written at the end of a word after a solid consonant house, table The name "soft sign" corresponds to one of the functions b indicate the softness of the preceding consonant.
Complex names denote classes of letters.
The unit of graphics is called grapheme(term I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay). A grapheme often coincides with what is usually called a letter. The grapheme often coincides with what is usually called a letter; however, for example, lowercase and uppercase styles, which are considered the same letter, should be considered as different graphs, since there are certain rules for the use of lowercase and uppercase letters, and violation of these rules is considered an error. Therefore, from the point of view of spelling, these letters are not equivalent and not interchangeable.
Different graphemes that convey the same sound are called homophonic(for example, the same lowercase and uppercase letter styles.
Any grapheme is a class allographers. Allo-graphs are called different styles of the same letter, not regulated by spelling and, therefore, interchangeable in any case: for example, “T” in different fonts and handwritings. Graphic units are simple and complex. Complex graphic units are called graphic complexes(for example, sch in him. lang.). Graphic complexes are not included in the alphabet, but are usually given in dictionaries in the "Reading Rules" section.
The number of letters in the alphabet and the number of graphemes in the language usually diverge. The grapheme, like the phoneme, is an abstraction. The phoneme is realized in a number of allographs, as well as
phoneme in a number of allophones. But there is no true correspondence between graphic and phonological systems. A phoneme is a sign of a special kind, in which there is a plane of expression, but there is no plane of content. The grapheme has both a plan of expression in the form of a graphic sign and a plan of content; the plane of its content is the phoneme it denotes.
In the graphic system of the Russian language, 39 (according to R.I. Avanesov) phonemes correspond to 33 letters. To this one can add
3 grapheme complexes zhzh, zhzh, zhd (reins, ride, rain - in the senior orthoepic norm). Thus, the number of letters in the modern Russian alphabet is less than the number of phonemes in the language.
Basic principles of Russian graphics: phonemic and positional.The phonemic principle is related to what the letters mean / letters of the Russian alphabet do not represent sounds, but phonemes/ , positional is related to how phonemes are indicated in writing. The positional principle of graphics is that a phonemic correspondence to a letter can only be established taking into account its position - neighboring letters and other graphic signs. The positional principle of graphics is associated with two of its features: the designation of a phoneme in writing<j > and the designation of hardness - softness of consonant phonemes. Phoneme<j > denoted by four different ways, for couples based on hardness - soft-bones consonants, there are 2 designations: 1) the use of letters b after the letter of the consonant (this method is used in 2 positions - at the end of the word and before hard consonants); 2) writing subsequent letters i, yu, e, e, and. However, it should be borne in mind that there are “graphically incorrect” spellings in the Russian writing system.
A different writing system, as well as their style; a system of relationships between graphemes and the phonemes, syllables, morphemes, words they designate;
2) a section of linguistics that studies these relationships.
The concept of "graphics" is usually used in relation to the sound-letter type of writing, in which, in addition to graphics, two more sides are distinguished - the alphabet and spelling. The main means of graphics here are graphemes (letters), as well as punctuation marks. In addition, the accent mark, various methods of abbreviating words, spaces between words, uppercase or lowercase letters, indents (see Paragraph), all kinds of underlining, and in printed reproduction of text - font highlights (for example, italics) are used. In a special form of writing - transcription - other graphic signs (softness, longitude, brevity, and so on) can be used.
AT modern world the most common writing systems are based on the Latin alphabet (see Latin script), Cyrillic and Arabic script. The degree of perfection of the graphic system is determined by how accurate the correspondence between the systems of graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of a particular language is. There is no ideal graphics in which each grapheme (letter) would convey only one phoneme. Relatively economical (in terms of the ratio of the number of letters and phonemes) are graphic writing systems that are a continuation of the Cyrillic alphabet. When the Slavic alphabets (Cyrillic and Glagolitic) were invented, the Greek alphabet was specially redesigned in order to maximally correspond to the phonemic composition of the Slavic languages. Of the modern graphics systems, which are the development of the Cyrillic alphabet, one of the most advanced is Russian. Most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are unambiguous; in it, 33 letters are used to designate 41 [according to the Leningrad (Petersburg) phonological school] phonemes. Quite economical alphabets for many peoples former USSR created on the basis of Russian.
In many modern systems letters built on the basis of the Latin alphabet, the discrepancy between the number of graphemes (letters) and phonemes is quite large - 23 Latin letters (25 in late Latin) are used to designate from 36 to 46 (for example, in English) phonemes. This is explained by the fact that historically the Latin alphabet was adapted (without its fundamental changes) to the languages that adopted it. The gap in the ratio of graphemes (letters) and phonemes also increased due to the phonetic changes that took place in the languages, if their spelling remained traditional. As an additional means of expressing phonemes, letter combinations (complex graphemes) are used: digraphs (for example, English ck for [k], German ch for [h], Polish sz for [s]), trigraphs (for example, English oeu for), polygraphs ( English augh for [:e]). So, in English there are 118 such graphemes; together with monographs (of type m for [m]) it has a total of 144 graphemes. Some graphic systems introduced additional letters (for example, French ç, Polish ł), letters with superscripts (Czech š, č, z, German ä, ö, ü).
Graphics of many modern languages according to the method of reproduction and according to the pattern of letters, it is usually divided into written and printed. For example, the modern styles of the letters of the written graphics of the Russian language were formed on the basis of the styles of the letters of the Old Russian script. The foundations of the graphics of the modern Russian printed type were laid by the reform of Peter I (see Reforms of the alphabet and spelling), who introduced civil type for printing books.
Lit .: Baudouin de Courtenay I. A. On the relationship of Russian writing to the Russian language. SPb., 1912; Gvozdev A.N. Fundamentals of Russian spelling // Gvozdev A.N. Selected works on spelling and phonetics. M., 1963; Balinskaya V. I. Graphics of modern of English language. M., 1964; Vachek G. Written language. General problems and problems of English. The Hague; R., 1973; Amirova T. A. On the history and theory of graphemics. M., 1977 (bibl.); she is. Functional relationship between written and spoken language. M., 1985; Shcherba L. V. Theory of Russian writing. L., 1983; New trends in graphemics and orthography. N.Y., 1986; Zinder L.R. Essay on the general theory of writing. L., 1987 (bibl.); Derrida G. De la grammatologie. . R., 1997.
