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The struggle for the independence of the Netherlands from Spain was over. Dutch War of Independence

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Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

TOU VPO "KSPU them. V.P. Astafiev"

Faculty of History, Department of World History

Control work on the topic:

"Dutch Revolution"

Completed:

Correspondence student

2nd year departments

Kuznetsova I.G.

Checked:

Department Lecturer

General History

Chernova M.A.

Krasnoyarsk 2012

Plan

1. Introduction

2. The Netherlands before the 16th century

3. Prerequisites for the revolution and the formation of the revolutionary situation

4. The first stage of the Dutch revolution (1566-1572)

5. The second stage of the revolution (1572-1579)

6. The third stage of the Dutch revolution (1579-1609)

7. The fourth stage of the Dutch revolution (1621-1648)

8. The nature of the Dutch revolution

9. Literature

eighty years war bourgeois revolution republic

1. Introduction

The Dutch Bourgeois Revolution (Dutch. Tachtigjarige Oorlog - "Eighty Years' War") is a successful revolution of 17 provinces in the struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire. As a result of the revolution, the independence of the 7 United Provinces was recognized.

The areas now known as Belgium and Luxembourg (those of the 17 provinces that remained under Habsburg rule) were called the Southern Netherlands. The first leader of the revolution was William of Orange.

The Dutch Revolution was one of the first successful splits in Europe and led to the emergence of the first modern European republics. Initially, Spain managed to contain all kinds of militias. However, in 1572, the rebels captured Brielle, and an uprising broke out. The northern provinces gained independence, at first de facto and in 1648 de jure.

During the revolution, the Dutch Republic grew rapidly and strengthened, becoming a world power thanks to merchant ships, a developing economy and science, and cultural growth. The southern Netherlands (modern territory of Belgium, Luxembourg and northern France) remained under Spanish rule for some time. However, the long oppressive domination of Spain in the south caused the financial, intellectual and cultural elite to flee to the north, which contributed to the success of the Dutch Republic. By the end of the war in 1648, a large area of the Southern Netherlands had been captured by France, which, under the leadership of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII, rejoined the Dutch Republic against Spain in the 1630s. The first stage of the conflict was based on the struggle of the Netherlands for independence. However, at the center of the later stage was the official declaration of de facto independent United Provinces. This stage coincided with the rise of the Dutch Republic as a powerful force and the formation of the Dutch colonial empire.

2. The Netherlands before the 16th century

The Netherlands occupied the territory on which the modern Netherlands (Holland), Belgium, Luxembourg and some areas of northeastern France are now located. They had 17 provinces, the largest of which were: Flanders, Brabant, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Artois and Gennegau. Since 1519 The Netherlands, being part of the Duchy of Burgundy, and at the same time long associated with the empire by vassalage, were included in the vast empire of Charles V.

The state structure of the Netherlands remained very peculiar. This was explained by the characteristics of their historical development. In the Netherlands already in the XIV-XV centuries. commodity-money relations and handicraft production reached a very high development. The first capitalist manufactories arose. This gave great strength and independence to the cities. At the same time, the Netherlands, until the middle of the 16th century, despite the well-known successes of the Habsburgs in creating a centralized bureaucratic apparatus, was a federation of previously independent small feudal counties and duchies that retained a number of ancient liberties and privileges.

The political system of the Netherlands was ambivalent. There was a centralized government apparatus. The actual ruler of the Netherlands was usually the vicegerent (general stadtholder) of the emperor, and after the collapse of the empire of Charles V in 1556, the king of Spain. Under the governor, there was a state council, consisting of representatives of the nobility, and councils - financial and secret, which included representatives of the nobility, the urban bourgeoisie and royal legalists (lawyers). The representatives of the central authorities in the localities were provincial stadtholders, usually from the local aristocracy.

Along with the bodies of the central royal power of the Habsburgs, there were estate representative institutions - the States General in the center and the provincial states in each province. The states had the right to impose taxes. In addition, in cities and towns there were self-government bodies that were in the hands of the burgher elite and the patriciate, and each of the 17 provinces and each city had special privileges. Thus, the royal power in the Netherlands was to a certain extent limited in its actions.

The Netherlands was of great value to Charles V. They not only gave him colossal financial resources (6692 thousand livres in 1552 alone), but were also the most important military-strategic base against France and the opponents of Charles V from among the German princes.

The Netherlands also benefited from being part of the empire of Charles V. Being economically the most developed country Europe, they took over almost all trade with the Spanish colonies and a significant part of the financial transactions and foreign trade of the empire, which contributed to the further economic development of the Netherlands. They occupied a special position in the empire of Charles V and used the resulting economic benefits.

3. Background of the revolution andsetting up a revolutionary situation

In the 1st floor. 16th century in the Netherlands there was a process of the so-called. primitive accumulation, capitalist relations developed rapidly. The traditional foundations of economic life were collapsing, which was especially clearly reflected in the old centers of guild production in Flanders and Brabant, which were falling into decay. At the same time, in the newly developing branches of production and in new industrial centers not connected with the guild system, capitalist manufactories (in Antwerp, Hondschot, Liege region, Valenciennes, etc.) rapidly developed; great progress was made in metallurgy and the mining industry (Namur, Liege); in Holland, capitalist entrepreneurship spread to cloth-making, brewing, fishing, shipbuilding, and allied industries; Amsterdam took the leading place among the capitalist developing cities. Rebuilt in a capitalist way and trade; Dutch merchants took a leading place in international trade. Fundamental changes also took place in the structure of agrarian relations. Areas of commercial agriculture have developed, and highly productive dairy farming has sprung up in Holland and some other areas. In economically developed regions corvée died out, cash rent and various types of short-term lease spread; there was a small quantitative, but economically strong stratum of farmers who farmed on a purely entrepreneurial basis. The bourgeois class was formed, the proletariat was born.

The main brake on the further development of capitalism was the yoke of Spanish absolutism, which exploited the Netherlands economically and oppressed politically in the interests of the reactionary Spanish nobility and the Habsburg dynasty. Since the religious ideology was dominant at that time, and the Catholic Church served as the main pillar of Spanish absolutism and the feudal system, the socio-political demands of the revolutionary part of the Dutch bourgeoisie and the masses of the people were clothed in the form of Calvinism (widely spread in the country since the 50s).

Absolutist oppression became especially intolerable under the Spanish king Philip II (since 1556). The economy of the Netherlands was dealt a series of heavy blows: a devastating duty for the Dutch wool-weaving industry was introduced on imported Spanish wool, Dutch merchants were denied access to the Spanish colonies, the conflict between Spain and England interrupted trade relations with this country that were important for the Netherlands, etc. Spanish absolutist orders were introduced, and in order to subjugate the country, Spanish troops were stationed there. The reactionary domestic and foreign policy of the Spanish government destroyed the country's economy, condemned the masses to hunger, poverty and lawlessness.

The masses were worried. In the 60s. Calvinist sermons drew thousands of people. Arrests and public executions of "heretics" caused a series of unrest in the cities and towns of Flanders and Brabant. The Calvinist consistories, led by revolutionary-minded bourgeois, agitated among the people against the Catholic Church and Spanish absolutism. The opposition-minded layers of the Dutch nobility, led by Prince William of Orange, counts Egmont, Horn, Louis of Nassau, Brederode and others, also opposed the policy of Philip II. carrying out a moderate reform of the church, to profit from its confiscated property, but most of all they feared that the policy of Philip II would cause a popular uprising that would sweep away the feudal order.

The opposition nobles organized themselves into the Union of the Agreement ("Compromise") and on 5 April. 1566 filed a petition in Brussels to the Spanish viceroy Margarita of Parma demanding an end to religious persecution, violations of the country's liberties and to convene the Estates General. The government failed to comply with these requirements; the union of nobles entered into negotiations with the consistories on joint action. All this spoke of the emergence of a revolutionary situation fraught with an explosion. And this explosion happened.

4. The first stage of the Dutch revolution (1566-157)

The movement began in the summer of 1566 with a mass iconoclastic uprising. Calvinist preachers revolted their supporters, who rushed to destroy icons and other objects of the Catholic cult. About 5.5 thousand churches were destroyed.

The monasteries, which owned vast lands, were dispersed, and the peasants who depended on them destroyed documents with records of their duties. With the money seized from the church, military detachments were formed to fight the Spaniards and defend the Calvinist faith.

At the beginning of the iconoclastic movement, everyone acted together: peasants, artisans, wealthy merchants and nobles, who often led rebellious detachments. But its scope and the demand of the plebs - "The blood of the priests and the property of the rich!" - cooled the nobles and wealthy burghers. They tried to stop iconoclasm. As a result, the enthusiasm of the rebels began to wane, and, in the end, the opposition was split on the eve of the Spaniards retaliating.

To pacify the rebellious Netherlands, a punitive army led by the Duke of Alba was hastily sent. The Spaniards captured all the most important cities and began to massacre the rebels. The first to lay down their heads on the chopping block were the aristocrats, the earls of Egmont and Horn. This was followed by the execution of ordinary participants in the uprising. A special council in the case of rebellions, nicknamed the "bloody council", condemned 8 thousand people to death. The Inquisition hunted down the Calvinists and incited them to inform on them, promising the property of the condemned as a reward to the informers.

The Duke of Alba demanded huge taxes from the Netherlands. The economy of the Netherlands with their developed trade was threatened with death. After the announcement of the introduction of the tax, all transactions stopped for a while, and business life froze. Butchers, bakers, brewers refused to supply products to the markets. Famine began in the cities. Desperate people gathered in front of the residence of Alba, shouting that they would prefer a quick death on the scaffold to the slow strangulation of the Netherlands.

Alba's cruelty, however, convinced many that it was useless to hope for the mercy of the Spaniards, and therefore it was necessary to continue the fight against them.

Terror did not bring the Netherlands to its knees. A guerrilla war began in the country. Peasants and artisans went to the forests, where detachments of "forest gozes" were formed. Fishermen, sailors, merchants and shipowners became "sea geese". They attacked Spanish ships and coastal fortresses, and then took refuge in the ports of Protestant England, who tacitly supported them.

The opposition nobility was headed by Prince William of Orange, a cautious politician who was nicknamed the Silent. Prince William of Orange was not of Dutch origin. He was born in Germany, in the family of the sovereign prince of Nassau. He inherited his Dutch possessions from his uncle. Brought up at the court of Charles V, William of Orange retained close ties with his relatives in Germany, married a German princess and always defiantly emphasized his position as an imperial prince. At the first stage of the revolution, he aspired to become an independent imperial prince, an elector of Brabant or of Holland. At the same time, his religious tolerance was combined with hatred of the Anabaptists, and his tendency to reform was explained by the desire to extract material benefits from the confiscation of church possessions and secure foreign allies in the person of the French Huguenots, German Protestant princes and the government of England.

After the suppression of the iconoclastic movement by the Spaniards, William of Orange fled with a group of his adherents to Germany and here began to gather forces for an armed struggle against Alba. From here, having collected subsidies from wealthy merchants and consistories of Dutch cities, with the patronage and assistance of German Protestant princes and French Huguenots, he made several trips to the Netherlands to fight the Spaniards. However, they were all unsuccessful. The reason for this was not only the lack of military leadership talents of the prince, but also the nature of his policy and strategy. At that time, he was guided mainly by mercenary troops and the help of foreign sovereigns.

Having suffered a defeat in the military campaign of 1568-1569, the Prince of Orange in 1571 began secret diplomatic negotiations with France and England. The purpose of the negotiations was to enlist the military assistance of these states. The provinces of Gennegau, Artois, and Flanders were promised in return for "aid" to France; England - Holland and Zeeland, and the prince himself was to receive Brabant and some other provinces, and become the imperial elector of Brabant.

However, the socio-political situation in which the activities of the Prince of Orange developed, the specific alignment of class forces that developed in the further course of the revolution and the war of liberation, made serious amendments to his plans. In the end, he actually became the executor of the will of the large, mainly commercial bourgeoisie of the Netherlands, who saw in the Prince of Orange the “strong man” she needed. At the same time, William of Orange managed to secure support among the most diverse social strata: nobles, wealthy townspeople, and even from some part of the masses.

5. The second stage of the Dutch revolution (1572-1579)

In 1571, Alba introduced the alcabala. The entire economic life of the country was suspended, transactions were terminated, shops and manufactories were closed, many firms and banks went bankrupt. The atmosphere in the country became extremely tense, especially in Holland and Zeeland. A mass emigration of the population began. In such an environment, a detachment of "sea geezes", expelled from English ports by decree of Queen Elizabeth, who yielded to the insistence of the Spanish government, captured the port city of Bril, located on an island at the mouth of the Rhine, with a sudden raid on April 1, 1572. This episode, in the context of the newly aggravated revolutionary situation, served as a signal for a general uprising in the northern provinces. On April 5, 1572, the city masses of Vlissingen revolted and let the revolutionary detachments of the Geuzes into the city. The surrounding peasantry actively supported the rebels and vigorously exterminated small detachments of Spanish troops. This was followed by uprisings in the city of Veer, in which the main arsenal of the Spanish army was located, in Arnemuiden Enkhuizen, and a few weeks later the whole north was on fire in the fire of a general uprising. That part of the nobility of the northern provinces, which became close to the bourgeoisie and adopted Calvinism, also embarked on the path of struggle against the Spaniards. These successes on land were backed up by a series of heavy blows against the Spanish fleet at sea.

A popular uprising in the north, led by the revolutionary Calvinist bourgeoisie, laid the foundation for the future bourgeois republic of the United Provinces. It is characteristic that neither Alba nor the Prince of Orange could appreciate the full importance of this event. The prince, completely immersed in the organization of a new invasion of foreign troops in the Netherlands, “... learning about this popular movement, showed no pleasure. On the contrary, he complained that these small successes would interfere with the main event he was preparing”, Reading book on the history of the Middle Ages in 2 hours / ed. S.D. Skazkina - M.1969 - Hugo Grotius wrote in his chronicle. Alba scorned the "rebellion of the peasants" and arrogantly declared: "It does not matter" Reading book on the history of the Middle Ages in 2 hours / ed. S.D. Skazkina - M.1969. He believed that the main danger was from the Prince of Orange and his allies from among the German princes. Alba moved all his main forces to Gennegau, to the city of Mons, which was captured by the brother of the Prince of Orange, Louis of Nassau.

The Prince of Orange only then paid serious attention to the uprising in the north, when his next military campaign in the south of the Netherlands suffered a complete collapse. In the meantime, in the northern provinces, the "marine geezes", formed from the plebs, artisans and the radical bourgeoisie, the new urban militias became the masters of the situation. They conducted active military operations against the Spaniards on land and at sea, organized the defense of cities and, using revolutionary terror, dealt with opponents of the revolution and with Spanish agents. But the wealthy merchants of Holland and Zeeland, who maintained a political alliance with the nobility and the highest stratum of the medieval burghers, gradually began to take power into their own hands. One of the steps in this direction was the calling of William of Orange. He was given the highest executive power and command of the troops and navy. These social strata hoped that the prince would "bridle" the masses and ensure the conduct of the war against Spain, using foreign allies for this. Already in 1572, French and English detachments began to land in Holland and Zeeland, which, under the guise of "help", pursued selfish, predatory goals in relation to the Netherlands.

The period from 1573 to 1575 was difficult for the rebels. Realizing his mistake, Alba attacked the "rebels" with all his might. Everywhere the masses put up a desperate and heroic resistance to the Spaniards. For seven months (from December 1572 to July 1573) the population of Haarlem waged a heroic struggle against the Spanish troops besieging the city, and only the threat of starvation forced them to capitulate. No less heroism was shown by the inhabitants of the besieged Leiden (May-October 1574), whose struggle ended in a brilliant victory. The rebellious provinces widely and with great effect used the method of flooding the territories occupied by the Spaniards with water, although this caused very great damage to the peasants. Finally, Madrid realized that Alba's policy had failed. In December 1573 he was deposed and left the Netherlands. Requesens, who succeeded the Duke of Alba, stopped collecting alcabala and announced a very limited amnesty, but these were belated, half-hearted measures, and the situation in the country did not change for the better. The rebellious provinces of the north selflessly endured the most difficult trials. Spanish mercenaries went unpaid for years. Having met with the heroic resistance of the people and severe material deprivation, they quickly turned into a crowd of marauders and rapists.

In 1576, the Spanish soldiers mutinied. Having displaced their commanders and left the "inhospitable" north, they arbitrarily moved with their entire mass to the south, leaving ruins and desolation behind them.

However, a revolutionary crisis was rapidly brewing in the south as well. City magistrates and the masses were preparing a rebuff to hired robbers. Detachments of peasants destroyed small groups of Spanish soldiers. On the streets of Brussels, the Spaniards and their accomplices were killed. Even the nobility and clergy showed strong dissatisfaction with the policies of Spanish absolutism.

On September 4, 1576, a detachment of the city militia of Brussels under the command of an orange officer (a supporter of the Prince of Orange), with the support of the population, arrested members of the state council. The masses revolted. Spanish rule was also overthrown in the southern provinces. Power passed to the Estates General.

The September 4 uprising received a response throughout the country. Everywhere the masses of the people took up arms and overthrew the reactionary city magistrates. Broad sections of the urban plebs and the peasantry were involved in political activity. The revolutionary elements of the bourgeoisie sought to control and lead this movement of the masses. At the same time, the reactionary nobility, the wealthy conservative burghers and merchants did not want to lose their leadership positions. They tried to gain a foothold in the city magistrates and the government apparatus. The nobles seized command positions in the army organized by the states, and vigorously recruited their own detachments. In general, the political situation was extremely confusing and contradictory. In particular, the situation was especially complicated by the fact that the rebellious Spanish troops captured the citadels in a number of large cities: Antwerp, Ghent, Alosta, etc. The population of these cities was under the constant threat of violence and robberies from the rebellious Spanish mercenaries.

Under these conditions, in the same 1576, the Estates General met in Ghent. In terms of their composition, they hardly reflected the changes that had taken place in the political life of the country. The southern provinces were represented here by the reactionary nobility, the Catholic clergy and the conservative sections of the burghers. The delegates of the northern provinces were in the minority, and their radical proposals were drowned in a stream of fruitless discussion.

Meanwhile, the rebellious Spanish mercenaries of the Antwerp citadel took possession of the city on November 4, subjecting it to robbery and destruction. 8 thousand citizens were killed and tortured, about 1000 buildings burned down, the total damage was estimated at 24 million guilders.

These events forced the States General to hasten to come up with a solution. The text of the “Ghent appeasement” adopted by them on November 8, 1576, however, did not contain a clear program of action. True, the bloody legislation of the Duke of Alba was declared canceled, the need to preserve the unity of the country and to wage a decisive struggle against the rebellious Spanish troops (which were outlawed) was declared until the country was liberated from the Spaniards. In the south, the dominance of the Catholic religion remained; for Holland and Zeeland recognized the right to maintain Protestantism. But a number of important questions remained unresolved. The power of Philip II, hated by the people, was not overthrown. The liberties and privileges canceled over the past 5-10 years by the Spaniards, which gave the city lower classes the right to take some part in local government, were not restored. In particular, the liberties of Ghent, canceled by Charles V after the Ghent uprising of 1539-1540, were not restored. Issues such as the elimination of feudal land relations were not even discussed by the States General, and the proposal to secularize church lands was rejected by the majority of deputies. All this showed that those who worked out the text of the "Ghent appeasement" - rich burghers, nobles, representatives of the urban patriciate and the Catholic clergy, did not seek to further develop the revolution, but to limit it.

Against the will of the people, the Estates General negotiated with Don Juan of Austria, sent by Philip II as governor of the Netherlands. In February 1577, don Juan agreed to accept the terms of the "pacification of Ghent" and signed the so-called eternal edict. But already on July 24, he openly broke with the States General and began to gather troops in Namur.

In response, a new wave of popular uprisings swept across the country. In Brussels and some other cities of Flanders and Brabant, revolutionary "committees of eighteen" were created, consisting of representatives of 9 guild "nations" ( A nation was a group of workshops of related specialties.) cities, 2 from each.

The members of the "committees of eighteen" were bourgeois, lawyers, artisans, small shopkeepers, merchants. In fact, these committees were organs of revolutionary power. Their main task was to organize the defense of cities and their environs from Spanish troops. The war for the independence of the country was the most urgent vital task in the country, and the revolutionary character of any party was determined by how vigorously it was able to wage war with the Spaniards. But, starting with the organization of the defense of the cities, the "committees of eighteen" began to invade all areas of urban life, control the actions of the magistrates and put pressure on the state council and the Estates General in Brussels. In the summer and autumn of 1577, the "committee of eighteen" of Brussels officially demanded that the States General remove the reactionaries and Spanish agents from the state apparatus that had settled in it. He imposed a special tax on the income of wealthy citizens of Brussels. However, the masses of the people were not sufficiently organized, and the revolutionary bourgeoisie was unable to nominate a nationwide leader from among themselves. The Prince of Orange took advantage of this. In the autumn of 1577 he arrived in Brussels. Relying on the energetic activity of his supporters, he achieved the position of ruvard (governor) of Brabant.

Meanwhile, the noble party tried to gain a foothold in Flanders and make its capital - the city of Ghent - the center of their counter-revolutionary combinations. The uprising of the Ghent plebs on October 28, 1577 was driven away by noble reactionaries. Their leader, the Duke of Aarschot, and a number of other conspirators were arrested, and the "Committee of Eighteen", under the influence of the Calvinist consistories, became the owner of the city.

Everywhere democratic military detachments, revolutionary "committees of eighteen" were organized, donations were collected and weapons were made. Democratic elements also seized power in Arras, the center of the province of Artois, in which the influence of reactionary noble elements predominated. But everywhere, supporters of William of Orange, who tried to carry out their program of action, also penetrated into the composition of the "committees of eighteen".

The states-general and the social strata that supported them were at a loss. Frightened by the powerful scope of popular uprisings, they saw their salvation in its suppression by conspiring with the forces of feudal Catholic reaction, which aroused even greater indignation among the people.

The most acute socio-political struggle flared up in Ghent. The "Committee of Eighteen" introduced freedom of religion here, government troops were expelled from the city, and instead of them military formations were created from democratic elements - the plebs and artisans. The leadership of this army was in the hands of representatives of the revolutionary bourgeoisie. Church property was confiscated and sold at a cheap price. The proceeds from their sale went to pay for the troops and help the poor. In the autumn of 1578, the Ghents executed ardent reactionaries, supporters of Spain - the former member of the "bloody council" Hessels and Jan de Wisch, through whose fault many people died.

Unwilling to support the policy of the States General, the Ghents refused to pay taxes and, in order to unite the forces of the revolutionary liberation movement, entered into an alliance with Brussels and the cities of Flanders.

After the pro-Spanish nobility of Gennegau and Artois, having defeated the urban democracy in Arras and Valenciennes, revolted in the autumn of 1578, the Ghents, in alliance with the Flemish peasantry, led active military operations against them. In Flanders, a real peasant war broke out. The Flanders peasantry received neither land nor exemption from feudal obligations from the Estates General. At the same time, it was subjected to robbery and violence by nobles and military mercenaries called to the Netherlands by the Estates General and the Prince of Orange.

Frightened by the growth of a mass revolutionary movement, the Estates General sent troops who savagely cracked down on the rebellious peasantry.

6. The third stage of the Dutch revolution (1579-1609)

The third stage of the revolution began with the creation of two unions - Arrara and Utrecht.

On January 6, 1579, in Arras, representatives of the nobility of the provinces of Artois and Gennegau entered into an alliance, the purpose of which was a general agreement with Philip II as "legitimate sovereign and sovereign." It was an open betrayal of the national interests of the country by the feudal Catholic reaction.

In response to this, on January 23, 1579, the Union of Utrecht was created, the core of which was the revolutionary northern provinces: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Friesland. They were soon joined by the cities of Flanders and Brabant, led by Ghent. The purpose of the Union of Utrecht was to wage a revolutionary war against Spain to a victorious end.

On July 26, 1581, in the midst of a war with Spain and a sharp political struggle within the country by the states of the provinces that concluded the Union of Utrecht, Philip II was officially deposed as the sovereign of the Netherlands. Even before that, the Prince of Orange crushed in August 1579 the democratic movement in the city of Ghent. In the north, democratic city corporations, the so-called militia or shooting guilds, were deprived in 1581 of the right to take part in solving city and national affairs by a special law. In February 1582, the Prince of Orange and the States General, against the will of the people, called the Duke of Anjou into the country as its ruler. In January 1583, the Duke of Anjou, relying on mercenary French troops, raised a reactionary rebellion, which had the goal of joining Flanders and Brabant to France. The rebellion was suppressed by the forces of the armed people, but in combination with the general situation in the central provinces of the country, it had disastrous consequences for the further fate of the revolution.

The policy of the supporters of William of Orange, who suppressed the democratic movement, had as a result the weakening of the struggle of the broad masses for independence and led to the fact that the intensified military onslaught of the Spaniards in 1580 was opposed in the south only by the resistance of scattered urban centers

The plebeian artisan masses, disorganized by the betrayal of their leaders, were unable to successfully resist the onslaught of the Spanish troops and internal reaction. Even earlier, the peasantry lost the ability to fight, because the Estates General drowned in blood its actions aimed at the elimination of feudal ownership of land. The most radical and enterprising elements of the urban bourgeoisie - the owners of manufactories and the merchants associated with them - emigrated in droves to the north. In the cities of Flanders and Brabant, the conservative strata of the bourgeoisie, the highest strata of the medieval burghers, connected by their political and economic interests with Spain, acquired ever greater strength and importance. As a result, the Spaniards captured the southern part of the Netherlands.

The situation in the north was different. Here Holland and Zeeland, provinces with relatively more developed forms of capitalist relations, especially strengthened during the revolution, represented the center of the national liberation movement, which attracted revolutionary elements from other provinces of the Netherlands. Religious persecution and the Spanish tax system, the alcabala, aroused the same indignation in the city and the countryside, which created a solid basis for the joint struggle of the peasants and the urban plebs. The revolutionary elements of the bourgeoisie, grouped around the Calvinist consultations, were stronger and more united than in the south, and were constantly replenished by emigration from the south. The bourgeoisie and the popular masses participated in the northern provinces in a joint struggle against the Spaniards, the Catholic Church and the most hated feudal institutions. The ideological banner of the movement was Calvinism,

Having left the southern provinces after the uprising of 1576 with the role of a military barrier, the Dutch bourgeoisie successfully used the temporary respite created by this. With the conclusion of the Union of Utrecht in 1579, it laid the foundation for the political existence of a new independent bourgeois state - the United Provinces of the Netherlands, often called Holland after the largest and most important province.

The state apparatus of the United Provinces was gradually completely taken over by a conservative merchant oligarchy. The invitation of the Prince of Orange to the post of stadtholder, the formal preservation of the sovereignty of Philip II over the Netherlands until 1581, the removal of Calvinist consistories and shooting guilds from participating in solving state and city affairs, support for the foreign policy of the Orangemen - all this was the work of her hands.

In the summer of 1584, William of Orange was killed by the agent of Philip II, Balthasar Gerard. However, the socio-political basis on which Orangeism developed and grew continued to exist. The states-general of the United Provinces were still engaged in an intense search for a new foreign sovereign to the throne of the Netherlands. When the King of France, Henry III, rejected the offer made to him, the English orientation triumphed. In September 1585, the Earl of Leicester, an entourage of Queen Elizabeth, assumed the duties of the de facto ruler of the United Provinces. The danger of this policy was not long in coming to light. Fulfilling the instructions of the English government, the Earl of Leicester sought to turn the republic into a disenfranchised appendage of England, and to prevent English merchants from seizing the traditional external Dutch markets. To this end, France and Germany were declared "allies" of Spain, and trade with them was prohibited. The Earl of Leicester waged an unsuccessful war with Spain, and then, by order of the English government, he started treacherous negotiations with the Spaniards and raised a military mutiny in order to capture the Netherlands.

The rebellion of the Earl of Leicester was defeated, and he himself was forced to leave the republic. Only after this did the ruling merchant oligarchy put an end to the search for foreign sovereigns and switched to an independent policy in its relations with neighboring states.

In 1587-1609. the republic, in alliance with England and France, continued to wage war against Spain.

Having suffered a number of heavy military defeats, Spain was forced in 1609 to conclude a truce for 12 years. Under the treaty, Spain recognized the independence of the United Provinces and their right to trade with the Portuguese colonies in the East Indies. The mouth of the Scheldt was closed to trade, dooming Antwerp to inevitable economic ruin. The conclusion of the armistice of 1609 marked the victory of the revolution in the north of the Netherlands.

7. The fourth stage of the Dutch revolution (1621-1648)

In 1621, the truce with Spain ended and hostilities resumed. Military operations connected with the general events of the Thirty Years' War proceeded with varying success. The ruling merchant bourgeoisie of Holland was inclined towards peace with Spain, prevented the capture of Antwerp by the troops of the republic, fearing that it would be included in the union of the United Provinces and become a dangerous competitor to Amsterdam. Moreover, the Dutch merchants even supplied the Spaniards, besieged in Antwerp, with weapons and food, of course, for a good price.

With the end of the Thirty Years' War, the war between the United Provinces and Spain was also ended. In 1648, the independence of the United Provinces was recognized and their formal connection with the empire was abolished. A number of cities and territories of Brabant, Flanders and Limburg went to the republic, which, however, remained in the position of disenfranchised and cruelly exploited "goneral lands". The mouth of the Scheldt remained closed to trade, and Antwerp was completely deserted.

8. Xcharacter of the Dutch revolution

The special character of the Dutch revolution in comparison with the revolutions of 1648 and 1789. was due to the fact that in the Netherlands the bourgeoisie was still a politically immature class. This is especially true for the southern provinces of the Netherlands. The class antagonism of the Dutch bourgeoisie towards the nobility and absolutism was also undeveloped. Under the conditions of the war for independence, the social essence of events was obscured, since the national liberation struggle against Spain came to the fore. Therefore, the Dutch bourgeoisie, to an even greater extent than the English, especially in the person of its economically strongest part - the big merchant bourgeoisie, supported an alliance not with the peasantry and the urban plebs, but with the nobility. The Dutch nobility, in contrast to the English bourgeois "new nobility" of the 17th century. was for the most part feudal, and such an alliance was associated with much greater concessions on the part of the Dutch bourgeoisie to the feudal elements than in England of the 17th century.

Literature

*Chistozvonov A.N. The Dutch bourgeois revolution of the 16th century. Moscow: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1958.

* History of the Middle Ages in 2 volumes / ed. S.P. Karpova - M.2003

* A book for reading on the history of the Middle Ages in 2 hours / ed. S.D. Skazkina - M.1969

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The Netherlands - "country of cities"

After the ruin of Italy in the first half of the XVI century. The Netherlands remained the most economically developed region in Europe. They were called the country of cities, since many rich cities arose here, which were centers of developed crafts, trade and sea crafts. Shipbuilding has been developing in the Netherlands for a long time, and this made it possible to create the largest merchant and fishing fleet in Europe. The great geographical discoveries and colonial trade turned the city of Antwerp in Flanders into the largest trading port in the world. Intermediary trade through Antwerp took on a large scale; up to two thousand ships from all over the world gathered in its port at the same time.

The Netherlands included the most diverse territories - feudal estates (duchies and counties), church lands - bishoprics, urban communes, which differed both in their political structure and in the level of economic development. To the south were the industrialized Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders. In the north, the county of Holland and Zeeland, which was closely connected with it, were the most developed, where trade and sea industries flourished. The economy of the outskirts was dominated by agriculture, in terms of which the Netherlands was noticeably superior to its neighbors.

Background of the Dutch War of Independence and its beginning

When the possessions of Charles V were divided, the Netherlands came under the rule of the Spanish king Philip II. New possessions brought him four times more income than Spain itself or all of Spanish America. However, from the very beginning, Philip II pursued a policy that inevitably led to the loss of the Netherlands.

The breakdown of the financial system due to the war that the Spaniards waged with France dealt a heavy blow to the economy of the Netherlands. Dutch bankers were lending money to the King of Spain, who now refused to repay his debts. The situation was aggravated by the fact that local merchants were denied access to the Spanish colonies, and this led to a drop in foreign trade turnover. Philip II pursued the same policy in the Netherlands as in Spain itself, regardless of local peculiarities. The traditional rights of the Netherlands were limited, the tax burden grew. General indignation was caused by the religious policy of the king. Philip II confirmed the action of the "bloody decree" of Charles V on the persecution of Protestants in the Netherlands. The Inquisition was introduced in the country, the decisions of the Council of Trent applied to it. Meanwhile, a new faith, Calvinism, was rapidly gaining popularity in the Netherlands.

His followers united in communities, which turned into self-organizing bodies of the population, dissatisfied with the power of the Spanish king. Thus, a religious split was added to the political and economic contradictions between Spain and the Netherlands, which made the positions of the parties even more irreconcilable.

The first expression of indignation was the noble opposition of the Netherlands. In April 1566, her deputation presented a petition outlining their grievances to the Spanish viceroy Margarita of Parma. This did not bring benefits, but the fighters for independence found their name. One of the courtiers contemptuously called the modestly dressed Dutch nobles beggars - gozes. The nickname turned into a nickname worn by Dutch patriots with pride.

Since the attempt at a peaceful solution failed, open demonstrations began in the country, which took the form of iconoclasm - the destruction of the symbols of the Catholic cult. Pogroms of churches, behind which Calvinist preachers stood, began in the summer of 1566. In total, more than 5 thousand churches were destroyed. However, the superiority of forces was on the side of the Spanish authorities, and by the spring of 1567 the iconoclastic movement was stopped.

Not content with this, Philip II sent an army to the Netherlands under the command of the Duke of Alba to completely eradicate heresy and eliminate the possibility of rebellion. The Spanish commander-in-chief established a brutal military regime in the country. Thousands of people were executed, including leaders of the noble opposition. In the Netherlands, Spanish taxes were introduced, which led to the widespread decline of the economy.

The Spaniards put things in order with "iron and blood", but this only increased resistance. The struggle was led by an experienced politician, Prince William of Orange (1533-1584). The son of the German count of Nassau and heir to the Principality of Orange in southern France, he also had large holdings in the Netherlands. Spanish terror forced him to hide in Germany, from where the rebellious prince tried to conquer the Netherlands with the help of foreign mercenaries. However, the military campaigns organized by William of Orange with the support of German and French Protestants invariably ended in defeat.

Revolt in the Netherlands

Meanwhile, a partisan movement was unfolding in the Netherlands. Forest gozes, mostly peasants, acted on land, and their sea brethren fought successfully against Spanish shipping. The ports of England were the main base of sea geese, but Philip II forced the English queen to expel them from there. This event was a turning point in the history of the Netherlands.

On April 1, 1572, the seagoes, deprived of a haven, captured the city of Bril on the Dutch coast with a sudden blow, which served as a signal for a general uprising in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. Holland and Zeeland appointed William of Orange as their ruler (stathouder). The Duke of Alba responded with terrible cruelties, trying to intimidate the rebels. In the city of Haarlem, which surrendered to the mercy of the conqueror, thousands of people were executed. The effect was the opposite - the Dutch preferred to die, but did not give up.

Of greater importance was the heroic defense of the city of Leiden in 1574. The failure of the Spaniards at Leiden was equal to a lost battle. By this time, the Duke of Alba, whose only achievements were the extreme bitterness of the rebels and the complete ruin in the country, was recalled to Spain.

The uprising now engulfed the central and southern provinces of the country. In September 1576, the city militia of Brussels arrested members of the State Council of the Netherlands. The Spanish administration was removed from power, and the States General were convened in Ghent, which took the leadership into their own hands.

Two months later, Spanish soldiers subjected to a terrible defeat the economic capital of the Netherlands - Antwerp. More than 8 thousand citizens died. After that, the northern and southern provinces entered into an agreement on joint action, known as the "Ghent pacification". It provided for the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the abolition of the order established by Alba. At the same time, the parties to the agreement confirmed their loyalty to the king, arguing that they were fighting only with rebel troops. However, the Ghent agreement did not lead to peace, and hostilities soon resumed.

Completion of the struggle for the independence of the Northern Netherlands, the Dutch Revolution

The war continued without decisive successes in favor of either side. The new viceroy in the Netherlands, Duke Alexander Farnese, combining military successes with a subtle political game, managed to achieve a split in the rebel camp. At the beginning of 1579, representatives of the southern provinces, where the Catholic population predominated, entered into an agreement with the governor in Arras, which aimed at reconciliation with "the Catholic king, our legitimate master." In response to this, on January 23, 1579, the Union of Utrecht was formed in the north, which was also joined by some cities of Brabant and Flanders. In essence, it was an agreement on a state union, which became a decisive step towards achieving independence. The logical consequence of this decision was the deposition in 1581 of Philip II. From that moment on, the Northern Netherlands became a de facto independent state.

While the war continued in the south, in the north the new government was strengthening its positions. Despite the death of William of Orange in 1584, the new state defended its independence and strengthened from within. It was called the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Military operations against the United Provinces developed unfavorably for Spain, and in 1609 she agreed to a truce for a period of 12 years, in fact recognizing their independence. The most important condition for the truce was the agreement of the Spaniards to close the mouth of the Scheldt for trade, which undermined the economy of the Spanish half of the Netherlands and created conditions for the rapid flourishing of the Dutch city of Amsterdam. From now on, the world trade and financial center moved from the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands to the territory of the new independent republic. The Netherlands also received the right to trade with the East Indies, which also contributed to their enrichment.

During the War of Independence in the Netherlands, profound, truly revolutionary changes took place not only in the political system, but also in the social and economic structure of the country as a whole. Therefore, the events that took place here are often characterized as a revolution, which is understood as a rapid and profound transformation of all aspects of society. In this sense The Dutch War of Independence can be regarded as the first bourgeois revolution in the world. As a result, a new social system was established in the country, fundamentally different from the one that existed here during the period of Spanish domination. The system in which capital dominates, that is, the power of money is affirmed, is usually called capitalism.

The Rise and Fall of the Dutch Republic

During the years of the war with Spain, the rebel provinces managed to create a full-fledged statehood, based on a developed economy and a powerful navy.

The supreme power in the country belonged to the States General, and the State Council carried out direct control. The chairman of the council was the stadtholder, whose position for a long time was hereditary in the family of the princes of Orange. The deputy stathouder - the great pensioner - represented the interests of the merchants in the government. Representation in the Council of State was determined by the contribution of each province to the overall budget, so the most developed Holland and Zeeland had 5 seats out of 12.

The predominance of Holland over all other provinces was so overwhelming that the whole country was named after her. Both the capital of The Hague and the economic center of the new state, Amsterdam, were located on the territory of Holland. An indicative feature of the political structure of the United Provinces was a very high property qualification for voters, due to which only a few thousand people out of almost a million people had the right to vote.

In essence, it was a trading republic, the leading positions in which belonged to the rich merchants of sea cities. The basis of the economy was developed maritime trade, which put forward the Dutch merchant fleet in first place in the world. The second most important branch of the economy was fishing and other marine industries. In terms of the number of fishing vessels, Holland was also far ahead of other European countries.

One of the most important consequences of the War of Independence was the creation of the Dutch colonial empire, the third largest after the overseas possessions of Spain and Portugal. This was facilitated by the fact that Portugal was captured by Spain and continued to resist only in the colonies.

To regulate the profitable spice trade, the Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602, which became the main instrument of the colonial policy of the Netherlands. The basis of the new colonial empire was the Netherlands Indies (modern Indonesia). Thanks to the capture of colonies in Asia, in southern Africa and in America, entrepreneurs received a huge source of enrichment, which in many ways contributed to the flourishing of the new state.

After a twelve-year truce, in 1621, the war with Spain resumed. In Europe at that time the Thirty Years' War was blazing, the Spanish-Dutch confrontation became the most important component of the all-European conflict. In 1648, Spain officially recognized the independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands.

By the middle of the XVII century. Amsterdam has become the largest port and recognized financial center of the world. The Dutch fleet was larger than the fleets of all the other states of Europe combined. However, the Dutch did not enjoy their hard-won prosperity for long. At their peak, they faced a much stronger opponent than the weakened Spain or Portugal. It was England, where revolutionary transformations were taking place at that time, which eventually turned it into the most developed state in Europe.

As soon as they were born, the two bourgeois republics entered into fierce rivalry between themselves. In 1651, the English Parliament passed the famous Navigation Act, designed to encourage the trade and navigation of their own citizens and to undermine Dutch predominance in these areas. As a result, four years after the end of the War of Independence, the Netherlands was embroiled in a series of debilitating wars with England that undermined their economic well-being.

Culture of the Netherlands

After achieving independence, the Netherlands, along with Spain, occupied a leading position in the cultural life of Europe.

They achieved the most visible success in the field of painting. This amazing time gave rise to a disproportionately large number of great artists and paintings for such a small country, which made up the glory of world art. The explanation for this phenomenon can be found in the variety of conditions in which the various provinces and cities of the Netherlands developed. The diversity of the country is reflected in art. As once in Italy, many local art schools appeared in the Netherlands, distinguished by originality and a peculiar manner of painting.

Pieter Brueghel (1525-1569) took Netherlandish art to the world level. He became the creator of magnificent genre paintings filled with deep philosophical meaning. For example, the meaning of the painting "The Parable of the Blind" can be conveyed by the words "If the blind lead the blind, then both will fall into the pit." With deep understanding, Brueghel also captured the scenes of the folk life of his time. In addition, his artistic allegories reflected the events of the first stage of the struggle for independence.

In the middle of the XVII century. the original Dutch school of painting flourished. During this period, F. Hals, the creator of a group portrait, the brilliant landscape painter Salomon van Ruysdael, and many other artists worked. The pinnacle of Dutch painting is the work of X. van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669). His multifaceted art has not only national, but also global importance. Rembrandt left over 60 self-portraits showing the endless variety of manifestations of the human personality. His last masterpiece was the deeply philosophical canvas "The Return of the Prodigal Son", written according to a well-known biblical story.

Despite the decline that had begun, the Southern Netherlands, which remained under Spanish rule, also experienced in the first half of the 17th century. short-lived art.

The most prominent place in the artistic life of the Spanish Netherlands was occupied by the Flemish school of painting, the largest representatives of which were P.-P. Rubens (1577-1640) and his students. Rubens is considered the most important painter of the Baroque era. He was the court painter of the Spanish ruler of the Netherlands, created the largest art workshop in Europe, received orders from many countries, including from the crowned persons. The work of Rubens was of great importance for the development of the entire world of painting.

His most famous student was the remarkable portraitist Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641), the creator of a new type of decorative portrait. Van Dyck worked a lot in England, from 1632 he settled at the court of Charles I, capturing the images of the first Stuarts, members of the royal family and other English celebrities. He also painted portraits of the most famous commanders of the Thirty Years' War.

“The inhabitants of the principality of Geldern and the county of Zutphen and the inhabitants of the provinces and lands of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Friesland between the rivers Ems and Banvers have found it prudent to enter into an alliance with each other in a special and more intimate way, not in order to separate from the general alliance concluded by the Agreement of Ghent , but in order to strengthen it and protect itself from any difficulties that may arise in it as a result of any intrigues, encroachments or violence of enemies, in order to know how and in what way they should behave in such circumstances and be able to defend themselves against hostile forces. .. and in any case they wish to secede from the Holy Roman Empire in this way.
I. The named provinces shall be united and confederated with each other and all together, and will always help each other in every way and manner, as if they were one province; never shall they have the right to secede, to allow seceding, or to cede to another's possession by will, exchange, sale, peace treaty, marriage contract, or in any other way.
All this, however, without prejudice to any of the individual provinces, fiefs and their inhabitants, as well as to their special and private privileges, liberties, benefits, laws, statutes, customs and all other rights of any kind.
IX. Also, without the general unanimous council and consent of the said provinces, no agreement will be made, no peace treaty, no war will be started, no taxes and taxes will be levied regarding the whole union; but other matters relating to the confederation, or matters depending on these matters, will be regulated, discussed and decided by a majority of the votes of the provinces.
"XIII. With regard to religion... shall lay down all rules which they deem to be conducive to the good and justice of the provinces and lands and to all spiritual and temporal persons, without any impediment, so that every person is free in his religion and that no one suffers any misfortune. because of their religion, in accordance with the Ghent Agreement."

References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century

The experience of the Dutch Revolution (1566-1609) is especially interesting, if only because this revolution is one of the first bourgeois revolutions in Europe; the first - and not quite ordinary. So when we have to talk about the social and economic causes of its occurrence, we have to deal with a situation that is not quite typical, and it is simply impossible to analyze it without appropriate reservations and explanations.

The revolution was preceded by sharp social contradictions between the emerging capitalist and the old, feudal, ways (as was the case with the "classical" bourgeois revolution - the Great French Revolution), but they, firstly, did not have the global scale that they acquired in England or France, and, secondly, were strongly fueled by the economic factor, exacerbated by foreign intervention. The revolution is actually called bourgeois in traditional science precisely because the bourgeoisie played a very significant role in the revolutionary movement.

It can be said with certainty that the "revolutionaries" themselves did not set themselves the goal of destroying the "old" order, i.e., absolutism, and establishing a new type of social organization - a republic (in the ancient Roman sense of the word). For the most part, because there were no “revolutionaries” themselves: there was no question of any elimination of class division, as was the case in England or France, or of any development of a Constitution that would ensure universal equality. In the Netherlands there was no Locke, no Voltaire, no Rousseau to express the general mood. There was not even such a radical Lilburn who would one day simply say: “All people are by nature equal.<…>None of them has a right by nature to any superiority and power over others. Unnatural, unreasonable unfair<…>it would be on the part of any person to seize and appropriate such unlimited power and power for himself "1. One can, of course, speculate what prevented the emergence such a person, but still magis amica veritas: it did not exist because there was nothing to express.

Even more characteristic is the circumstance that throughout its entire half-century history the revolution has never produced its own ideologists. Of course, in the 1570s, the pogroms of noble estates, subsiding for a while, nevertheless continued, but all this happened spontaneously, without attempts to legislate these measures.

In fact, the goals of all categories of the rebels were 1) improving their financial situation, liberation from overwhelming economic oppression. And not even Dutch peasants from Dutch nobles, but the liberation of all categories of Dutch society from foreign oppression, oppression Spanish crown. Also 2) the rebels, including the peasants and the urban poor, wanted freedom of religion (the Spaniards, being Catholics themselves, prevented them from practicing Calvinism). Incidentally, Engels was inclined to regard this factor as the most significant, saying that it was "Calvinism that created the republic in Holland"2. And this ethical side of the revolution really cannot be ignored.

Of course, there was social tension in Dutch society, but to the natural extent that it happens in any society that is at the stage of formation of capitalism.

The desire to establish a natural balance between the ratio of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and the traditional nobility in the administrative apparatus was the third goal of the movement.

Thus, due to the specific nature of the 16th century Dutch liberation movement, it is very appropriate to first clearly define the field of study. Obviously, after the reservations made, it is hardly worth talking about the contradictions between the various strata of society in the Netherlands itself, as one of the factors in the social causes of the revolution, since this is a rhetorical, and not a historical question. And here's another reason: it is very obvious that the Dutch revolution as a liberation movement against the Spanish oppression (which it actually was and beyond which it did not go) in principle could well turn into a global struggle of the lower mendicant strata of the population against the industrial bourgeoisie. Provided that the contradictions between them would be so total. However, apparently, this did not happen, and not only because when such a danger arose at the very beginning of the movement, the nobles tolerantly managed to nullify this trend. In 1566, the already difficult economic situation (it is discussed in more detail below) was aggravated by a crop failure and a sharp increase in the prices of all products, which led to ferment among the poor. Peasants and workers of manufactories began pogroms. At first, they affected only a certain group of nobles, the city magistracy and Catholic priests. However, it soon became clear that if the uprising was allowed to take its natural course, the result could be very unpleasant. Note that it was not catastrophic, because the rebels did not have not only a clear program and a unified leadership (Calvinist pastors coordinated the movement on the ground), but even clearly formulated slogans. So, in essence, this performance was not much different from the large-scale food riots of the Middle Ages, and the desires of these people were generally reduced, relatively speaking, to panem et circenses. The pro-government noble group quickly mobilized all forces, and by 1567 the uprising was crushed.

Yes, sometimes it really seemed that the revolution could head in a different direction, anti-noble, but nevertheless this trend was brought to naught without any problems, and moreover at a fairly early stage. And the point here is not only and not so much in the cohesion of the actions of the nobles and in the absence of such among the rebels themselves. More important here is the mental aspect. The Dutch revolution, in principle, had no analogues in European history, the peasants themselves and the lower strata of the townspeople did not feel, did not realize the need and possibility of global social changes. The medieval feudal mentality has not yet had time to transform into the thinking of a new formation, for which the class struggle as such, its very innovative principle, would become accessible and acceptable. The prerequisites for this transformation have already been created, the process itself has already begun, based on the foundations of Calvinist ethics, but so far, at the end of the 16th century, the appointed time has not yet come.

So the picture becomes clearer. The bourgeois revolution in the Netherlands, in its directly bourgeois aspect, was a process analogous to the English or French; the victory of the revolution was the victory of bourgeois property over feudal property. The revolution was "a struggle for the unhindered capitalist development of the country"3. But its social aspect differs sharply from these analogues: the actions of the Dutch radical group, the so-called. "gueuzes", were simply a desperate guerrilla war against the Spaniards, on land and at sea. Without any program, just wanting to harm foreign enemies.

Now, before speaking directly about the economic and social causes of the revolution, we should say a little about the main cause of the revolution - the historical one, that is, about what and how "put the country into a state of general ferment", in the apt expression of Motley. The prerequisites for the revolution were created throughout the 16th century. Mary of Burgundy, one of the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, (the Netherlands was part of it) enters into marriage at the end of the 15th century with the powerful Maximilian of Habsburg, thereby strengthening her uncertain position. The Dutch lands are thus in dynastic dependence on the Habsburgs. This, it would seem, is not a very significant event (as soon as the map of Europe did not change during the Middle Ages, and even more so in the New Age), however, it carries colossal consequences. The Dutch lands acquire the status of provinces of Spain and are now governed by the now appointed Spanish officials - stadtholders. Outwardly, this seems to be just the acquisition of a new political center; in fact, the matter goes deeper. There was an integration into the global system with which the Netherlands turned out to be immanently incompatible.

During the reign of King Charles V of Habsburg (1500 - 1558) under the Treaty of Augsburg 1548 and the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, 17 regions of the Netherlands, including Flanders, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland and Utrecht, as a single hereditary district were finally officially included in the Habsburg Empire .

This merger did not happen absolutely free of charge for the Netherlands - the condition for the entry of the Dutch territories into the union formed by the Habsburgs was, in principle, a rather symbolic quota of imperial tax. After the division of the empire in 1555, the Netherlands came under the control of Philip II.

Philip plays a central role in the emergence of the Dutch Revolution, since it was his policy of plundering the rich and poorly protected Netherlands that led to the need to start hostilities. If you look at the situation not from a corner, but from a bird's eye view, it turns out, of course, that this policy was not specifically his whim, it was natural for the Spanish monarch in his position. But still, the immoderation of the actions of Philip's officials led to the formation of a revolutionary situation.

Philip's entire policy was determined by the interests of the Spanish nobility, for whom, as well as for the finances of the sovereign himself, the prospect of levying very considerable taxes from subject territories seemed very tempting. The aggressiveness of these attacks on the well-being of the Netherlands was all the more stimulated by the disastrous economic situation of Spain itself. It developed even in spite of the resources that came to the budget of the latter thanks to the rich and promising American colonies. The colossal waste led to a sharp aggravation of the economic and, at the same time, social situation in Spain itself, and any province with a non-Spanish-speaking population began to be perceived as a bottomless and unguarded well from which gold guilders could be drawn. But apart from the Netherlands, the Spanish crown at that moment did not have a reliable source to adequately meet its financial needs, so the entire burden of taxes fell on a promising, rich, rapidly developing region due to trade - the Netherlands.

Philip was determined to get everything he could out of the region, and so when the situation presented itself not too publicly to establish iron control over the province, he took advantage of it. Spanish troops were left in the Netherlands, brought there to confront France. Against this background, he did everything to concentrate the real management of the region in the hands of his proteges - members of the State Council. Thus, the last support that held the cart with stones on the top of the mountain was knocked out, and there was nothing more to keep the cart from a swift fall down. Further, there was no longer a "restraining factor" so as not to increase taxes and duties to any limit.

The presence of troops on the territory of the region opened up a very significant scope for all kinds of activities to the government of Philip II. But he began to "pump out resources", in the language of newspapermen, nevertheless on legal grounds: Philip asked for a loan from the Dutch financiers for several years, an amount that, according to rough estimates4, was about 3 million guilders. This money immediately went to pay debts to creditors from other countries, to whom Philip simply could not pay anymore.

But the Dutch lenders had to return this money sooner or later. Then, in order to get rid of unnecessary problems, he simply declared the Spanish state bankrupt in 1557, which ruled out the payment of these loans at all ever. Dutch financiers suffered huge losses.

In general, for a country with developing commercial and industrial capitalism, the presence of capital itself in the country, its free circulation, is of tremendous importance. Money is necessary for trade, it, after all, keeps the level of employment, and the increase in capital leads to the creation of new places. Money or its indirect equivalent is the basis of initial capital, which opens up scope for entrepreneurial activities of various sizes. Structures are being created that ensure the survival of the poorest layers. The absence of freely moving monetary resources in the situation of the formation of capitalism means a catastrophe, that is, when many peasants became so impoverished that they were forced to sell all their property and, together with their families, begin to lead a vagrant life. Potentially, this money, in the end, made it possible to expand manufacturing production, which was the second most important5 article of the country's income after trade. And in general, the very fact of the unconditional predominance of merchant capital over industrial capital speaks in favor of the fact that the "withdrawal" of 3 million guilders had an extremely painful effect on the country's economy. Indeed, in the trade sphere the existence of free capital is perhaps even more important than in the sphere of industry (where by that time the natural calculations used in extreme cases had not yet been eliminated)6. So far from only the creditors themselves suffered from this.

However, nevertheless, the base that was created in the Netherlands over the course of the 14th century, or even earlier, made it possible for the country to stagger a lot, but still stay on its feet. But that was the limit.

In the end, brought to its full climax, the predominance of merchant capital made itself felt. Philip continued the policy of "pumping out resources". In 1560 Spain increased the duty on imports of wool by 40%, and as a result, its imports to the Netherlands were almost halved7. It can be said with certainty that this sanction was directed directly against the Netherlands and was, as it were, a touchstone that was put into the Dutch garden, since many stones had already flown there, and the Spaniards wanted to know how the Netherlands would react to this excess. The experiment led to the fact that the country was in a state of shock.

The fact is that the Netherlands was a country of manufactories, an important sector of production was the dressing of fabric, but the conditions of the country itself did not allow obtaining the proper amount of primary raw materials. Therefore, wool was exported from other regions, mainly from Spain. And the Spaniards themselves were well aware that they simply had nowhere to go, somehow agree to any conditions, or simply catastrophically reduce production, because England and other European countries at that particular time could not provide the required amount of raw materials. This problem was a very serious blow to the Dutch economy. That something larger was to be expected behind this is beyond doubt.

I recall a similar situation that developed here in the XIV century, when Philip IV the Handsome started a war in Flanders. The heavy contributions imposed by the king on the industrial cities led to mass discontent. The king wanted to harm England by all means, even if only through Flanders. In particular, he tried to influence the policy of Flanders, trying to turn it against his enemy. But economic ties with England (Flanders needed raw wool, and England was its main supplier then, and therefore the cities of Flanders always held on to England) turned out to be much stronger than political ones with Philip, and little Flanders was not afraid of an open conflict with Philip, who demanded an exorbitant amount. It all ended then with just brutal beatings of the French. Philip still retained the coastal part of Flanders, but by a parodic, albeit the only possible, method - by banning the export of raw wool outside France. Flanders thus received a cheap commodity. This case very clearly shows how much the Netherlands was dependent on constant import-export, trade in general back then, in the 14th century. In the 16th century, with the development of production and the volume of trade, this dependence became the basis of the entire economic structure.

But Philip did not limit himself to raising the duty on the export of wool. To top it off, Dutch merchants were denied access to the Spanish colonies. And the Anglo-Spanish conflict paralyzed trade with England, which, in modern terms, not only left thousands of people without work, but also undermined the "basis of foundations." It is unlikely that once Ludovico Guicciardini, a Florentine diplomat and historian who visited the Netherlands more than once, said that “foreign merchants everywhere (in the Netherlands) enjoy greater freedom than in all other states of the world”9. The words of a contemporary very accurately testify to how important the economic role played by merchant companies. Undoubtedly, that special, caring attention to all kinds of trading enterprises on the part of the Netherlands, who realized what a colossal role the merchants played in their country. It should be noted that, in parallel to this, Philip continued to receive his "normal" annual income from the region, which at first amounted to about 2 million florins10 (this is half of all funds received by the Spanish treasury).

For such a small country as the Netherlands, this blow was almost fatal.

All of the above actions of Philip led to the first major indignation - the so-called. The iconoclastic uprising of 1566, which was already mentioned at the beginning.

Who actually formed the predominantly social base here? Mostly they were peasants and small townspeople, driven to the limit by the extortion of the Spaniards (because this blow almost hit them the hardest). Many people left their permanent place of residence and started an open war with foreign invaders. However, due to the fact that there was no commonality in the ranks of the rebels, and the movement was not so global, and besides, which is very important, then there was no talented leader who would take everything into his own hands - because of all this, the uprising a year later it was successfully suppressed. And what did they do? They, the poor who had lost control, destroyed icons and other objects in Catholic churches.

This uprising is a very important and interesting moment, since it was the first in terms of time and the same, in essence, with all subsequent indignations. So let's give it a little more attention. It is impossible to talk about social causes and at the same time forget about the initiators and the social base of the uprising.

It turns out that in different places the situation was a little different. In Antwerp, these were artisans and the urban poor. In Tournai, in addition to the townspeople, there are hundreds of peasants (the leaders were Calvinist governing bodies - consistories). In general, these performances were a massive and sometimes very, very aggressive phenomenon, which, as it were, was not very typical for a traditional late medieval society. In Tournai, financial documents and land plots of monasteries and churches were almost the first to be burned. In Valenciennes, the situation developed similarly. In Dendermonde, Mecheln, Oudenaarde, Ghent too. In Middelbürch, the iconoclasts set fire to the "rich" and some of the magistrates and forced the authorities to release the "heretics". In Utrecht, the actions, in addition to the economic ones, were of a particularly acute socio-political nature. The viceroy herself, Margaret of Parma, described the riots that took place there as not only "the overthrow of religion, but also the destruction of justice and any political order"12.

As you can see, after all, revolutionary, or rather anarchist, elements were present in this revolution and were not in the background. But, most importantly, they were not a conscious coup against the bourgeoisie or the nobility in general - they were, as it were, a physiological reaction to a specific situation.

A characteristic moment and the fact that the base of the uprising was Brabant, Zeeland, Tournai, Holland, Utrecht - those areas that suffered most from the cessation of trade with England. And in the agrarian outskirts, the uprising affected only certain areas.

Up to a certain point, the nobles had similar goals with the rebellious representatives of the "lower classes", but when it came to a sharp social conflict, the nobles retreated, split, disbanded under an agreement with Parma. The leaders of the nobles, the Count of Egmont and the Prince of Orange, began to persecute the iconoclasts. By 1567 the uprising was crushed.

Actually, it was not a revolutionary act in essence, as has already been said, and it is not a pity to repeat it, but it was quite such in terms of the way the rebels acted. After all, even before the events of 1566 there were numerous tax riots. And in general, tax riots are very typical for Europe of the time described: let us recall, for example, the well-known large anti-tax peasant uprising in France in 1548. Then the south of France was also engulfed in mass confrontation. The target was mainly tax collectors and usurers, and in the Netherlands - Catholic churches, as symbols of everything Spanish, and the estates of pro-Spanish nobles, as well as representatives of tax services.

Now let's look at the reaction of the Spanish side. Philip, apparently, was not amazed, but he was annoyed and decided to act on the entrepreneurs manu militari, which turned out to be a big mistake.

Immediately after the events of 1566-67, another reason for the Dutch Revolution was created by his official, the Duke of Alba, who was sent as a stadtholder. By the spring of 1567, Alba arranged a "Council of Revolts" (which was supposed to punish the rebels). Mass terror, executions, persecutions began. For the war with the influence of the States General (which no one canceled), Alba introduced a 1% tax on all real estate; 5% - from the sale of real estate and a separate article of 10% tax, alcabala, from the sale of any goods13. True, he agreed to wait with the alcabala until 1571. But other taxes began to be collected immediately.

The patience and possibilities of the population of existence from hand to mouth were exhausted. Let us also recall the fact that the tax from the Dutch provinces from 1542 to 1558 increased from 2.5 to 7 million guilders14.

When in 1571 the aforementioned tax was nevertheless introduced (more precisely, not alkabala, but its equivalent, which, by the way, exceeded its size), a literally tetanus situation arose: trade deals were canceled, banks went bankrupt, mass emigration began, people closely connected with trade - first of all. It seems that one of the eyewitnesses of the situation, who was present at the announcement of the introduction of the equivalent of the alcabala, did not exaggerate too much, saying that "the announcement of the tax filled the city with tearing cries and general confusion"15. This tax was so burdensome and dangerous due to the specifics of the region: in the Netherlands, many goods had to go through dozens of intermediaries before reaching the buyer. Such conclusions were made by a very competent analyst16, studying the situation that developed at that time. It is noteworthy that Wilhelm himself writes to Philip, who is already conducting hostilities with the rebels through Alba: "Our cities swear to each other to withstand any siege and rather set fire to our own houses and burn to the ground with them, rather than submit to the oppression of Alba"17. With these words, the prince is already deliberately directing popular discontent against an external enemy. Which is already directed there. However, this illustrates what level of closeness existed between the two opposing sides of the social ladder, if the prince addressed Philip like this in front of the rebellious peasants, and they listened to him. And Alba, as if in response to this, claims that the only effective method fight against rebellious taxpayers - "not to leave a single living soul"18.

The logical consequence of unrest, war and confrontation was that the unpredictable famine again became the problem of every day, this Damocles sword of the entire Middle Ages. Russia was simply called "tramps" or "beggars"). These people, deprived of their means of subsistence, become militias, "gueuzes", leading an underground struggle against the Spaniards.

Now I would like to return to the social question again. As already mentioned, social contradictions within Dutch society existed more as a side effect than as the main lever of the revolution itself, although there were some cases of open confrontation. But, in fact, social contradictions within each European country were on the face and were exacerbated by the beginning of the formation of the global world market. Thus, the Dutch nobles, when submitting a petition to Margaret of Parma, warned her of the high probability of "general unrest and rebellion"20 if the position of the lower classes was not at least partially improved. In order not to drown in unfoundedness (because the situation with the social question of the genesis of this revolution is indeed very complex and contradictory), let's look at the social situation that developed during the revolution itself.

Recall that all events take place in the context of the general urbanization of the Netherlands. In the 16th century, there were already 300 cities and 6,500 villages in this small area with a population of about 3 million people21. Capitalism is booming; corporate trade and guild craft are in decline. This means the emergence of a certain number of freely moving population in search of work and social status. Bourgeois farming appears in the countryside. Life in all aspects is concentrated in largest cities. The vast majority of the products of the Flemish and Brabant manufactories are sold through Antwerp. Antwerp, along with such port giants as Vlissingen and Bril, becomes a central object during a troubled situation, the control of which determines the priorities of the entire political situation. Not without reason to capture these giants meant mastering the situation, not without reason the capture of Brill in 1572 was the signal for a general uprising.

The uprising also covered such centers as Feer, Arnemönden, Enkhuizen. The peasants there, by an absolute majority, carried out operational lynching of the pro-Spanish nobles. The existing power, of course, was replaced by a new one. The leaders of the movement, the Calvinist nobles, who organized and carried out the uprising, took over the management of these cities. They performed those judicial and administrative functions, without which the city simply could not exist: life, although hectic, continued. This self-government had nothing to do with Mount Tabor. Here, in parentheses, I would like to note one detail that illustrates how much the Dutch revolution was a specific phenomenon. The fact is that the "general uprising" was carried out by separate groups of people, detachments of people driven to extremes. But only the bourgeoisie was in charge. Moreover, the recruited poor were sometimes even paid for their service. dutch revolution cause essence

But still, again about the socio-political causes of the uprising. The following fact regarding Philip's management is interesting: by his actions he infringed upon the interests of literally every social cell of the Dutch society, although he himself apparently hardly thought about the consequences of this kind of policy. His policy in the Netherlands, which was exactly the opposite of that of Napoleon III's later in France, can rightfully be called an "anti-tacking" policy. So, by decree of 1559, where a reservation was made that only theologians with a university education could become bishops, he de facto provided monetary positions again to his proteges from Spain. By this decree, he took away from the nobles the legitimate privilege of holding advantageous episcopal positions, since they, of course, were not “theologians with a university education”23. The nobility under the leadership of the nobles (members of the State Council at the same time) - Prince William of Orange, counts of Egmont and Horn immediately stood up in opposition. The nobles hoped to improve their position by secularizing the monastic lands for the reasons already indicated. Representatives who were in Parliament began to demand the abolition of "posters" (special laws against heretics) and the restoration of the country's liberties, as well as the withdrawal of Spanish troops24, which also cost them very, very expensive.

The Spanish government showed great interest in the income of private individuals. Oligarchy of the top level also did not escape the extortion of the Spanish crown. It is significant that Alba himself wrote about this to Philip: "Large sums must certainly be squeezed out of private individuals. The consent of the States General to levy a permanent tax must also be obtained"25.

Along with this, the oppression also affected the abbots, who now had to support the royal appointees. Everything worsened and the position of the petty nobility, dissatisfied with the violation of their privileges by the king. They hoped to improve their finances through the secularization of church lands, reforming the church in the spirit of Calvinism. Philip was an ardent Catholic.

Speaking about the causes of the revolution, one cannot fail to mention such a socio-economic reason as the famine of 1565-66. He touched mainly on peasants, workers in manufactories, and simply poor townspeople. Hunger riots began. The leadership was taken over by the Calvinist communities - consistories - which moved on to organizing mass demonstrations in large commercial and industrial centers. It is characteristic that the leading positions in these consistories were held by

And in conclusion - what the revolution came to. The Dutch revolution certainly won, the territory passed to new form board, the Republic of the United Provinces was formed. However, the device of a new, bourgeois-democratic, state, laid down by the Union of Utrecht in 1579, did not have a republican essence, as it was in France after 1789. The supreme sovereignty belonged to the Estates General, a representative governing body that regulated all issues (the introduction of new taxes, laws, issues war and peace). However, the delegations of the provinces had only one vote each and, in addition, voted strictly according to the instructions of the rulers of their provinces (the so-called Imperative mandate). But the decisions they made were valid only when taken unanimously. Otherwise, the stadtholder acted as arbiter. However, in practice this almost never happened.

In general, the management system has changed towards liberalization. But up to certain limits. In the same Holland, where it was the most developed, only 2,000 men out of 800,000 of the population had the right to vote26. In Holland, the big bourgeoisie took over the administration, and only in Friesland did the townspeople sit together with the nobles. But, anyway, the formation of an independent state was, of course, a victory.

As you can see, the social and political causes of the revolution were very closely intertwined. The revolution arose due to objective reasons. But the folding of them themselves was accelerated from the outside, namely, by Spanish influence. It was the Spanish factor that set in motion those levers that, earlier than in other European states, launched the process of bourgeois revolution. The origins of understanding the scope and power of the movement itself lie again in its root causes: the excessive tension of the economic situation and significant political oppression, the persecution of Protestants. In fact, the entire revolutionary situation could, perhaps, not have developed if the Spanish government had taken into account the specifics of the Netherlands. Without going into details again, let's say that the country's economy was developed, even prosperous, but at the same time very vulnerable. (Compared to the same south of Spain, from where a very large amount of resources was pumped out. But this did not undermine the entire economy of the region at the moment). In conclusion, I would like to say about the significance that the revolution had for the Netherlands, about the global nature of what happened. And that means - and about the global causes, too. The perspective on all events and on the enormity of the reasons that made it happen was perhaps most successfully given by the director of the East India Company, Thomas Mose (1571 - 1641): "If you compare the times of their [Dutch] enslavement with their present position, they will seem us other people"

The Dutch Revolution (Eighty Years' War) played a big role in history, marking the advent of the New Age.

The uprising combined the signs of a liberation, civil and religious war. As a result of this event, a state with a republican form of government appeared in Europe.

Conditions and causes of revolution

In the 16th century, the Netherlands consisted of 17 provinces, occupying the territory of modern Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg and parts of France.

The Netherlands became part of the great Habsburg Empire during the reign of the Spanish king Charles V. This province provided almost half of the income to the treasury of the empire. Access to the sea and river communication allowed the Netherlands to conduct extensive trade. Animal husbandry, agriculture, fishing, handicrafts were actively developing.

The system of government in the Netherlands had its own peculiarities. The province was ruled by a stadtholder - the governor of the king. His power was supported by the State, Financial and Privy Councils. Since 1559, Margaret of Parma became the stadtholder of the Netherlands. The representative body was the Estates General. Magistrates acted as local self-government. Large cities and provinces had certain privileges and could internal matters decide on your own. That is, the centralized power here was combined with the local.

The development of the economy and the emergence of a strong bourgeois class became a fertile field for the development of the ideas of the Reformation. Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anabaptism were widely spread in the Netherlands.

In order to combat heresy, the Spanish king established the Inquisition in the province. For the mere suspicion of dissent, people were tortured and subjected to a painful execution. However, these cruel measures could not stop the spread of the new religion.

When he abdicated in 1555, Charles V gave his son Philip the Netherlands as part of the vast Habsburg empire.

The tough policy of the new sovereign to keep the Netherlands under the rule of Spain and in the bosom of Catholicism in many ways played its negative role in the development of the conflict.

Defending the interests of Spain, Philip II took a number of unpopular measures that harmed the economic and social development of the Netherlands:

high duties were imposed on the export of Spanish wool, which was used for the production of fabrics by local artisans;
merchants from the Netherlands were banned from trading in the American colonies;
since Spain was at war with England, the Netherlands had to break off all trade and other ties with her;
declaring Spain insolvent brought losses to its creditors - financiers from the Netherlands;
the army of the Spaniards, after hostilities with France, was quartered on the lands of the Netherlands and behaved there as in conquered territory, causing the hatred of the population;
there was an attempt to centralize power through members of the Privy Council loyal to Philip;
the number of bishops with the powers of inquisitors increased 4 times. The number of executions of heretics increased dramatically.

All this caused discontent not only among the ordinary population of the Netherlands, but also among the nobility.

Formation of noble opposition

The first fighters against the activities of Philip II were the nobles - William of Orange, Admiral Horn, Count Egmont.

The question of the allocation of sums of money to the Spanish king was the responsibility of the States General. Philip convened a representative body in 1559 to ask for funds for another war with France. He demanded additional taxes and a lump sum payment of 3 million florins. At the end of his speech, the king declared that he would not tolerate the spread of heresy and would fight it to the end.

Meanwhile, William of Orange created a coalition of disgruntled nobility around him. In their opinion, the interests of the Netherlands were infringed upon for the sake of distant Spain. In addition, the nobility was greatly impoverished by this time. William of Orange himself had huge debts. They demanded access to the highest government positions and church reform. The redistribution of monastic lands and the possibility of appointing nobles to spiritual positions promised good incomes. In the meantime, all this remained in the hands of the royal authorities.

Although Margarita of Parma was formally the stadtholder of the Netherlands, the real power and influence on the king was exercised by her adviser, Cardinal Granvela, known for his tough stance towards dissent and heretics.

In 1563, the highest nobility of the Netherlands demanded from the king the resignation of the cardinal. Philip II had to make some concessions. A year later, he recalled Granvela, and he left the Netherlands.

In April 1566, 300 representatives of the local nobility submitted a petition to Margaret of Parma demanding the restoration of local liberties and the abolition of the persecution of heretics. The viceroy did not give a direct answer. She promised that she would communicate their demands to the king and temporarily suspended the work of the Inquisition.

Summarizing, the following causes of the Dutch Revolution can be distinguished:

the development of production and the economy of the Netherlands, which led to the strengthening of the bourgeoisie as a class;
the weakening of the nobility, the dissatisfaction of the nobility with the policy of Spain;
spread of the Reformation in the territory of the Netherlands;
short-sighted policy of Spain towards the Netherlands (high taxes, inquisition, centralization of power, infringement of the rights of the bourgeoisie and nobles).

Dissatisfaction with the policy of Philip II grew not only among the nobles, but also among the common people.

The beginning of the revolution. Iconoclastic uprising

The iconoclastic uprising is considered to be the beginning of the Dutch Revolution. It was preceded by several lean years. Food prices have risen sharply. The activity of Protestant priests, who called for a fight against Catholic idolatry, intensified.

In August 1566, a massive popular uprising began in western Flanders. Angry people plundered Catholic churches and monasteries. All jewels confiscated from the church were given to the local authorities. The basis of the uprising were ordinary people - peasants and artisans. The authorities were not ready for a popular uprising. The uprising quickly spread from one city to another. The rebels demanded freedom of the Calvinist religion and forced the magistrates to enter into appropriate agreements with them.

All this frightened the pro-Spanish authorities. Margarita of Parma issued a manifesto, where she promised to stop the Inquisition, allow Protestant services, and grant amnesty to nobles. She turned to the nobility in the hope that they would help establish order in the country.

The local nobility and the leaders of the Protestants went to meet her. Together with the Spanish soldiers, the nobility actively began to suppress the uprising. And the members of the city councils themselves betrayed the rebels to the authorities. Mass executions of iconoclasts began throughout the country. In the spring of 1567 the uprising was crushed. However, Philip II was not going to forgive the rebels. He decided to send an army to the Netherlands under the leadership of the Duke of Alba.

Reign of the Duke of Alba

In August 1567 the Duke of Alba reached the Netherlands with a large army. He took the place of the stadtholder instead of Margarita of Parma, who left for Italy. The duke was a cruel but devoted to the king Spanish grandee, a fanatical follower of Catholicism. He came to the Netherlands to destroy heresy with the help of the army and the fires of the Inquisition and obtain payment of money for Spain.

Having heard about the approach of the duke, thousands of inhabitants of the Netherlands left their homeland. Among them were William of Orange with his brother Louis of Nassau. They left for their German possessions.

Arriving at the place, the new viceroy created the Council for the rebellion, which was immediately nicknamed "bloody". He closed the borders and billeted an army that was supported by the population. The soldiers were not forbidden to rape and rob the inhabitants. Arrests and executions began immediately. In 1567 Count Egmont and Admiral Horn were arrested and later beheaded. In total, during the reign of the Duke of Alba, more than 11 thousand people were executed.

In the spring of the following year, William of Orange attempted an invasion with mercenary troops, but was defeated by the Spaniards.

With fire and sword, the Duke of Alba began to plant Catholicism. His next step was the establishment of exorbitant taxes for the country - "alkabals". This was the last straw for the population of the Netherlands. Uprisings broke out everywhere. The people killed Catholic priests and Spaniards. The partisans hid in the forests and carried out their sorties from there. On the water, Spanish ships were waiting for sea geese. They also attacked coastal settlements. Thus, the capture of the city of Brila by the Gezes gave rise to a revolt in the northern provinces. As a result, all the Netherlands rose up against Philip II.

At the end of the summer of 1572, the Estates General appointed William of Orange as viceroy in Holland and Zeeland. In the autumn he returned to the Netherlands and led an uprising. Alba tried to suppress the rebellion by military force, but nothing came of it. After the surrender of the besieged Leiden, the duke had to retreat.

It became obvious that the duke could not cope with his role, and Philip II recalled him from the post of viceroy.

"Ghent appeasement"

The next stadtholder, Luis de Requezens, was ready to make concessions. He declared an amnesty for the rebels and abolished the Alcabalu tax, which had caused discontent among the people. But the people were no longer ready for compromises. Louis de Rekezens died in 1576. After that, the Council of State began to rule the Netherlands. Mercenaries in the Spanish army had not received a salary for a long time. In the summer, the soldiers rebelled and headed south. On the way, they burned and plundered the villages, killing the inhabitants. Then Brabant and Flanders revolted. The rebels took into custody the State Council that served the Spaniards. The states general began to rule the country and urgently collect their army.

In the autumn of 1576 Antwerp was practically destroyed by the Spanish army. After this terrible event, all the provinces of the Netherlands signed an agreement, which is commonly called the "Pacification of Ghent".

According to him, Philip II remained the ruler of the Netherlands, Calvinism was proclaimed in the north and Catholicism in the Southern Netherlands. The rebels were forgiven. The laws and confiscations of the Duke of Alba, as well as the edicts of the Inquisition, were repealed. That is, it was proposed to preserve the unity of the country under the rule of Spain in exchange for some concessions.

This document came to a certain compromise, but did not resolve the main thing:

the religious question was not finally resolved
the power of Philip II was preserved;
the privileges of local authorities were not restored.

Conclusion of the Eternal Edict

Philip II appointed his half-brother Juan of Austria as the next stadtholder of the Netherlands. After taking office as governor, he signed the Eternal Edict. According to this document, don Juan recognized the "pacification of Ghent" and took upon himself the obligation to withdraw the army from the country.

However, don Juan to the last opposed the withdrawal of troops, with the help of which he dreamed of completely subjugating the Netherlands. His authority as a viceroy fell. Soon Holland and Zeeland refused to execute the "Eternal Edict".

With a small army, Juan of Austria occupied Namur. In January 1578, he was able to capture the city of Isimble, and then Bennegad, Brabant, Flanders. However, Philip II did not support him either with money or with an army. In the end, on October 1, 1578, Juan of Austria died of illness in a military camp.

Politics of Alessandro Farnese

In November 1578, the son of Margaret of Parma, Alessandro Farnese, was appointed viceroy of the Netherlands. Being a skilled politician and diplomat, he managed to persuade the southern lands to the side of Philip II, sowing discord between the south and the north.

Farnese was able to convince the southern provinces to conclude a separate peace with him, the "Union of Arras", according to which Catholicism was declared the dominant religion, and the power of Philip II was preserved. In return, Farnese promised to withdraw troops.

In contrast, the Union of Utrecht was adopted in the northern part of the country. It proclaimed war with Spain until victory. Thus a new state was born.

In July 1581, William of Orange was appointed Stadtholder of the Northern States. An act was also signed deposing Philip II.

Meanwhile, in the southern lands, Alessandro Farnese destroyed the last strongholds of the rebels. He conducted several successful military operations, conquering Brussels, Ghent, and Antwerp. Thus, the southern part of the Netherlands remained under the rule of Spain.

Formation of the Republic of the Northern Provinces

After the assassination of William of Orange in 1584, his son Moritz of Nassau took the place of the leader of the northern lands.

At first, the Northern states tried to find a ruler in other states, but these attempts were unsuccessful. So in 1588 power passed to the Estates General. Thus the Republic of the United Provinces was created. It proclaimed freedom of religion. Each province maintained independence in its internal affairs. Two main positions were established: the great pensioner, who dealt with diplomacy and administrative affairs, and the stadtholder, commander of the army.

Moritz Nassau became the stadtholder. He returned the territories of the republic occupied by the Spaniards and began military operations in the south.

The Republic of the United Provinces concluded a Twenty Years' Truce with Spain in 1609. The Northern Republic was given independence. Finally came the victory of the northern Netherlands.

This confrontation resumed during the Thirty Years' War 1618-1648. However, even here Spain lost and re-recognized the freedom of the northern territories under the Peace of Munster. The Eighty Years' War is over.

Results of the Dutch Revolution:

in Europe the republic of the United Provinces was formed;
in it, Calvinism was proclaimed the main religion;
all the prerequisites for the formation of the bourgeoisie and the transition to capitalist relations were created;
the beginning of the formation of the Netherlands as a single nation was laid;
the establishment of the republic led to the flowering of Dutch culture in the 17th century.

Although the results of the Dutch Revolution are considered ambiguous due to the fact that only a part of the country's population won the victory over the Spaniards, it should still be noted that this event had a huge impact on the whole of Europe and marked the birth of a new world economic order.