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The developed capitalist countries are the big seven. big seven

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Introduction

"Seven" leading countries of the world in the world economy 2

The main problems solved by the big seven

Russia in the big seven

Russia's interest in participating in the G7

Benefits of Russian support for the G7

Attempts to suspend Russia's membership

Conclusion

Bibliography

"Seven" leading countries of the world in the global economy

Countries with a developed economy are those states that are characterized by the presence of market relations in the economy, a high level of rights and civil liberties in public and political life. All countries with developed economies belong to the capitalist model of development, although the nature of the development of capitalist relations here has serious differences. The level of GDP per capita in almost all developed countries is not less than 15 thousand dollars per year (at least 12 thousand dollars at PPP), the level of social protection guaranteed by the state (pensions, unemployment benefits, compulsory medical insurance) is at a fairly high level , life expectancy, the quality of education and medical care, the level of cultural development. Developed countries have passed the agrarian and industrial stage of development with the prevailing importance and contribution to the creation of the GDP of agriculture and industry. Now these countries are at the stage of post-industrialism, which is characterized by the leading role in the national economy of the sphere of non-material production, which creates from 60% to 80% of GDP, the efficient production of goods and services, high consumer demand, constant progress in science and technology, strengthening the social policy of the state .

The group of countries with developed economies, the IMF refers primarily to the leading capitalist countries, called the Big Seven (G7), which includes the United States, Japan, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy and Canada. These states occupy a dominant position in the world economy, primarily because of their powerful economic, scientific, technical and military potential, large population, high level of aggregate and specific GDP.

Further, the group of developed countries includes relatively small in comparison with the potential of the G7, but economically and scientifically highly developed countries of Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand.

In 1997, such states as South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan (the so-called dragon countries of Southeast Asia) and Israel began to be considered economically developed. Their inclusion in the group of developed countries was a merit for the rapid progress in economic development in the post-war period. This is a truly unique example in world history, when absolutely nothing of themselves back in the 1950s. countries seized world economic superiority in a number of positions and turned into important world industrial, scientific, technical and financial centers. The level of GDP per capita, the quality of life in the "dragon" countries and in Israel have come close to those of the leading developed countries and in some cases (Hong Kong, Singapore) even surpass most of the G7 countries. Nevertheless, in the subgroup under consideration there are certain problems with the development of a free market in its Western sense, it has its own philosophy of the formation of capitalist relations.

Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In the late 90s. they accounted for 55% of world GDP (if calculated at PPP), 71% of world trade and most of the international capital movement. The G7 countries account for more than 44% of world GDP, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are members of integration associations, of which the most powerful are the European Union - the EU (20% of world GDP) and the North American Free Trade Agreement - NAFTA (24%).

The Big Seven are regular meetings on top level leaders of the seven most economically developed states (USA, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, Canada), held to develop common strategic political and economic decisions. Since 1994, in the economic meetings at the highest level of the countries "B.S." Russia is involved, turning "B.S." to the Big Eight.

The G8 (Group of eight, G8) is an international club that unites the governments of the world's leading democracies. It is sometimes associated with the "board of directors" of the leading democratic economies. Domestic diplomat V. Lukov defines it as "one of the key informal mechanisms for coordinating the financial, economic and political course" of the United States, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, Canada, Russia and the European Union. The role of the G8 in world politics is determined by the economic and military potential of its member states.

The G8 does not have its own charter, headquarters and secretariat. Unlike the informal but broader World Economic Forum, it does not have a public relations department or even a website. However, the G8 is one of the most important international actors in modern world. It is on a par with such "classical" international organizations as the IMF, WTO, OECD.

2. The main problems solved by the big seven

"The Big Seven". A unique place in the system of organizations dealing with the problems of a developed subsystem is occupied by an informal institution - the "big seven". Due to the importance of the subsystem of developed countries, it is of global importance. The "Big Seven" was formed in the mid-70s, consisting of the leaders of the United States, Japan, Germany, Britain, France, Italy and Canada, which is taking steps to coordinate the policies of the leading Western countries. The form of its activity was the annual meetings at the top. The main purpose of which is to develop recommendations on the most acute economic problems of the world economy.

The political acuteness of economic problems predetermined the main issues of the meetings:

Ways to improve the economy;

Energy problems;

International trade;

Ways to stabilize the monetary system;

Relations between industrialized and developing countries;

Problems of countries in transition.

The complication of problems in the monetary and financial area necessitated the formation of an additional body. In 1985, a separate group of finance ministers and central bankers was established in Venice. They are charged with the obligation to annually analyze and compare the goals of economic policy and forecasts for the economic development of each country, paying special attention to their mutual compatibility.

The annual meetings of heads of state and government, finance ministers of the seven leading Western countries constitute an important element of the coordination mechanism in the world economy. They reached agreements on the stabilization of exchange rates (the La Plaza agreement in 1985 and the Louvre agreement in 1987), developed a debt strategy for the poorest and middle-income countries (Toronto, 1988, Paris, 1989 ., Cologne, 1999), ways to support reforms in Eastern European countries are outlined (Paris, 1990), etc.

3. Russia in the big seven

The G8 owes its appearance to a series of major international events that led to crises in the world economy in the early 1970s.

1) The collapse of the Bretton Woods financial system and unsuccessful attempts by the IMF and IBRD to reform the world monetary system;

2) the first enlargement of the EU in 1972 and its consequences for the economy of the West;

3) the first international oil crisis in October 1973, which led to serious disagreements between Western countries regarding a common position with the OPEC countries;

4) the economic recession that began in 1974 as a consequence of the oil crisis in the OEECD countries, accompanied by inflation and rising unemployment.

Under these conditions, a need arose for a new mechanism for coordinating the interests of the leading Western countries. Since 1973, the finance ministers of the United States, Germany, Great Britain and France, and later of Japan, began to meet periodically in an informal setting to discuss problems of the international financial system. In 1975, French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt (both former finance ministers) invited the heads of other leading Western states to gather in a narrow informal circle for face-to-face communication. The first summit was held in 1975 in Rambouillet with the participation of the USA, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan. In 1976, Canada joined the club, and since 1977, the European Union as a spokesman for the interests of all its member countries.

There are several approaches to periodization of the G8 history.

According to the topics of meetings and activities, there are 4 stages in the development of the G7/G8:

1. 1975-1980 - very ambitious plans for the development of the economic policy of the member countries;

2. 1981-1988 - increased attention to non-economic issues foreign policy;

3. 1989-1994 - the first steps after the Cold War: the restructuring of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the USSR (Russia), in addition to the traditional problems of the development of trade and debt. New topics such as the environment, drugs, money laundering are emerging;

4. After the summit in Halifax (1995) - the current stage of development. The formation of the "Big Eight" (inclusion of the Russian Federation). Reforming international institutions (“new world order”).

The question of whether the G8 was a full-fledged G8 when the G7 plus one became the G8 is the question of what role Russia has played and is playing in this organization is still a matter of great controversy. Its membership in the G8 was initially perceived with great reservations and criticism both abroad and in Russia itself. However, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. there is a more serious interest in this topic in Russia and abroad, a more respectful and informed attitude on the part of public opinion and media.

Since 1991, Russia has been invited to participate in the work of the G7. Since 1994, this has been happening in the 7+1 format. In April 1996, a special G-7 summit on nuclear security was held in Moscow with the full participation of Russia. And in the spring of 1998, a ministerial meeting of the "Seven" on the problems of world energy was held in Moscow. In 1998 in Birmingham (England), the G7 officially became the G8, giving Russia the formal right to full participation in this club of great powers. In the fall of 1999, at the initiative of Russia, a G8 ministerial conference was held in Moscow to combat transnational organized crime.

In 2002, at a summit in Kananaskis (Canada), the G8 leaders stated that "Russia has demonstrated its potential as a full-fledged and important participant in solving global problems." In general, in the 1990s, the participation of the Russian Federation was reduced to the search for new loans, the restructuring of external debt, the fight against discrimination against Russian goods, the recognition of Russia as a country with a market economy, the desire to join the Paris Club of creditors, the WTO and the OECD, as well as nuclear safety issues. By the beginning of the 21st century the country recovered from the 1998 crisis and the role of the Russian Federation changed. At the summit in Okinawa (Japan, 2000), Russia no longer raised the issue of loans and debt restructuring. In 2001, at a meeting in Genoa, the Russian Federation for the first time acted as a donor for some of the G8 programs. In the spring of 2003 alone, the Russian Federation allocated $10 million to the trust fund of the Cologne Initiative of the Paris Club of Creditors and provided $11 million to the World Food Programme. Prior to this, the Russian side decided to allocate $20 million to the Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. In terms of participation in the program of writing off the debts of the world's poorest countries, Russia is the leader of the G8 in terms of such indicators as the share of reduced debts in GDP and their ratio to per capita income. Russia is scheduled to chair the G8 summit in 2006.

Nevertheless, according to international experts, although Russia's geopolitical significance is beyond doubt, its economic power still does not match the level of other G8 countries, and therefore Russian representatives only partially participate in meetings of finance ministers and heads of central banks of the G8 members. eight." Experts agree that "100%" participation of the country in the work of the G8 is not feasible until it becomes a member of two other key international organizations - the WTO and the OECD.

"Russia has never been a full member of the G7," says Yevgeny Yasin. "In the 1990s, she did not have the money for this, and the "financial Big Seven" mainly solves money issues," the expert explains. "Then the money appeared, but Russia changed its mind about living in a democracy." Therefore, according to him, so far Russia has been invited to participate only in meetings of G8 heads of state, but not in financial meetings. "So the claims of our Foreign Ministry are groundless," the economist is sure. According to Dmitry Orlov, Director General of the Agency for Political and Economic Communications, it is not worth dramatizing the situation. "I think that Russia is just a full member of the G8, it's just that these meetings themselves are political clubs, and politicians have different phases of relationships," he says. "By and large, it is beneficial for the G7 to keep Russia inside this club, and not outside, so as not to lose the mechanisms of influence on it," the expert believes.

Work description

"Seven" leading countries of the world in the world economy 2
The main problems solved by the big seven
Russia in the big seven
Russia's interest in participating in the G7
Benefits of Russian support for the G7
Attempts to suspend Russia's membership
Conclusion
Bibliography

The G7, as noted earlier, includes economically developed countries such as the USA, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, France, Japan, and Russia joined these countries in the mid-1990s. The modern world economy seems to be heterogeneous. The roles of individual national economies in it differ significantly. The UN statistics given in the table below clearly show that among the leaders of the world economy are the countries of North America (USA and Canada), the countries of Western Europe (Great Britain, Germany, Italy, France) and Japan. But Russia's economy is in decline, even though it is part of the G8 (see Russia section). The United States of America has been the leader in the global economy over the past decades. At the present stage, the leadership of the United States in the world economy is ensured mainly by their superiority over other countries in terms of the scale and wealth of the market, the degree of development of market structures, the level of scientific and technical potential, a powerful and extensive system of world economic relations with other countries through trade, investment and banking capital. . The unusually high capacity of the domestic market provides the United States with a unique place in the global economy. The highest GNP in the world means that the US spends more than any other country on current consumption and investment. At the same time, the factor that characterizes consumer demand in the United States is the overall high level of income relative to other countries and a large stratum of the middle class, focused on high standards of consumption. In the United States, an average of 1.5 million new homes are built each year, and more than 10 million new homes are sold. passenger cars and many other durable goods. Modern US industry consumes about one third of all raw materials mined in the world. The country has the world's largest market for machinery and equipment. It accounts for over 40% of machine-building products sold in developed countries. Having the most developed mechanical engineering, the USA at the same time became the largest importer of mechanical engineering products. The United States now receives over one quarter of the world's exports of machinery and equipment, making purchases of virtually all types of machinery. By the beginning of the 90s. In the United States, a stable progressive structure of the economy has developed, in which the predominant share belongs to the production of services. They account for over 60% of GDP, ~ 37% for material production, and approximately 2.5% for agricultural products. The role of the service sector in employment is even more significant: in the first half of the 1990s. more than 73% of the active population is employed here. At the present stage, the United States has the world's largest scientific and technical potential, which is now a decisive factor in the dynamic development of the economy and competitiveness in the world economy. US R&D spending annually exceeds that of the UK, Germany, France, and Japan combined (US R&D spending in 1992 totaled over $160 billion). As before, more than half of government spending on R&D goes to military work, and in this respect the United States is much more burdened than competitors such as Japan and the EU, which spend the majority of their funds on civilian work. But the United States is still significantly ahead of the countries of Europe and Japan in terms of the overall potential and scope of R&D, which allows them to conduct scientific work on a broad front and to achieve rapid transformation of the results of fundamental research into applied developments and technical innovations. US corporations firmly hold the world lead in such areas of scientific and technical progress as the production of aircraft and spacecraft, heavy-duty computers and their software, the production of semiconductors and the latest high-power integrated circuits, the production of laser technology, communications, and biotechnology. The US accounts for over 50% of major innovations generated in developed countries. USA today - largest manufacturer high-tech products, or, as it is commonly called, science-intensive products: their share in the world production of these products was in the early 90s. 36%, in Japan - 29%, Germany -9.4%, Great Britain, Italy, France, Russia - about 20%. The United States also holds strong positions in the processing of accumulated knowledge arrays and the provision of information services. This factor plays a very significant role, since fast and high-quality information support to an ever-increasing degree determines the efficiency of the entire production apparatus. Currently, 75% of the data banks available in developed countries are concentrated in the United States. Since in Japan, as well as in Western Europe, there is no equivalent system of data banks, for a long time their scientists, engineers and entrepreneurs will continue to draw knowledge mainly from American sources. This increases their dependence on the United States and influences the commercial and production strategy of the consumer of information. It is extremely important that the basis of the scientific and technological potential of the United States is a cadre of highly qualified scientists and engineers engaged in scientific research and development. So, in the early 90s. the total number of scientific employees in the United States exceeded 3 million people. The United States leads in terms of the proportion of scientists and engineers in the labor force. The entire contingent of the US workforce is characterized by a high educational level. In the early 90s. 38.7% of Americans aged 25 and older had completed secondary education, 21.1% had completed higher education, and 17.3% had incomplete higher education. Only 11.6% of American adults have less than a secondary education, which is 8 or less years of schooling. The powerful scientific and technical potential of the country and the general high level of education and professional training of Americans serve as a strength factor for American corporations in their competitive struggle with rivals in the domestic and world markets. The continued leadership of the United States in modern world economic relations is a natural result of their previous development and the next step in the process of US integration into the world economy. The United States plays a special role in shaping the world economic complex, especially in the second half of the 20th century. The relations of leadership and partnership in the field of world trade, investment and finance, which are developing between the USA, Western Europe, Japan and the new industrial countries catching up with them, reveal a certain pattern. At first, there was absolute dominance of the United States, but as the economies of other participants strengthened, these relations turned into a competitive partnership in which the United States was forced to partially cede its share of influence to rivals, while moving the leader function to a higher level. The United States has consistently dominated world trade, the export of loan capital, direct and portfolio foreign investment. Today, this predominance is realized mainly in the scale of the economic potential and the dynamism of its development, scientific and technological progress, foreign investment and the impact on the world economy. financial market . At the present stage, the United States is the world's largest investor and at the same time the main target for foreign investment. Great Britain made the most significant investments in the USA ($12 billion). In total, the United States received over $560 billion in direct investments from abroad. American firms are still the largest investors in the world, the total amount of their direct capital investments abroad exceeds all world investments and amounted to approximately $706 billion. . In addition, American corporations have been involved in a capital investment boom in recent years due to the strengthening of the dollar. Corporate profits as a percentage of national income are much higher than in the 1980s. Unit labor costs did not rise in 1995 from an average annual increase of 4.1% in the 1980s, a clear sign of improved economic efficiency. Such successes are due to the strong growth in productivity, which in the 90s. in the non-farm sector increased by 2.2% annually, twice the rate of the previous two decades. If the current rate of 2% is to be maintained, national productivity will increase by almost 10% more in the next decade. In the post-war period, the internationalization of economic life took place in stages. At the same time, the US economy was undergoing a transition in the world economy from superiority over weak partners to competitive partnership and increased interdependence of strong partners, among which the United States retains its leading position. Another richest country on the North American continent, which has more than a century of history, is Canada. But the real incomes of the population of Canada fell by 2% in 1991. A slight expansion of employment and insignificant increases in wages in the public and private sectors of the economy hampered the growth of labor incomes, which make up 3/5 of the total incomes of the population. Investment incomes fell three times in a row, first due to cuts in dividend payments, and in 1993 mainly due to falling interest rates. As a result, real consumer spending in 1993 increased by only 1.6% against 1.3% in 1992. Statistics show that the reduction in the scale of production in the early 90s. was not significant, but it took place in the conditions of the most serious structural adjustment in the last three decades, affecting the industry of the two provinces with the most developed industrial potential - Ontario and Quebec. Economic growth, the revival of the Canadian economy has been going on since 1992, when the GDP growth rate was 0.6%; in 1993 they rose to 2.2%. In 1994, in terms of economic growth (4.2%), the Maple Leaf country for the first time since 1988 became the leader in the Big Seven and retained this position in 1995, having increased real GDP in 1995 by 3.8%. There is also a sharp jump in the growth of private investment - from 0.7% in 1993 to 9% in 1994 and 8.0% in the first quarter of 1995. Consumer spending began to grow approximately twice as fast - by 3% compared to from 1.6% in 1993. The growth of production in Canada is due to an increase in the income of the population and corporations. If during the recession of 1990 - 1991. real incomes of the population (after taxes, taking into account price increases) were declining, then in 1994 they increased by 2.9%, and in 1995 - by 4.0%. At the same time, the profits of Canadian corporations increased by 35% in 1994 and by 27% in 1995. Such growth is supported by the expansion of domestic demand, the increasing flow of exports and rising commodity prices in the world market. We are talking about high prices for energy carriers, chemical raw materials, metals, paper, wood. An important role in the growth of corporate incomes is played by structural adjustment in Canadian industry, measures to reduce costs and technical re-equipment, 213 which led to an increase in labor productivity, which in the manufacturing industries exceeds 5%. The new federal government, trying to solve the most acute problems of the domestic economic situation, in February 1995 proposed a plan of reforms, indicating a radical revision of the role of the state in the socio-economic life of the country. Thus, it is envisaged: j reduction of expenditures through federal ministries by 19% over the next three years, reduction of subsidies to entrepreneurs by 50%; j support for small businesses (but forms of assistance to small businesses will be less concessional and more in line with the austerity regime); 4- commercialization of the activities of state institutions and privatization. This means that there will be a commercialization or transfer to the private hands of the functions of state institutions and corporations in all cases where this is practically possible and effective. The program also includes the possibility of full or partial privatization of state-owned enterprises. Canada, whose exports and imports account for 2/3 of the GNP, is highly dependent on the situation on the world market. Over the past three years, its exports have grown by 31.6% and imports by 31.3%. Such positive shifts are due to the low exchange rate of the Canadian dollar against the US dollar, the restructuring of the economy and the increasing competitiveness of Canadian products associated with it, as well as the economic recovery in the United States, the market for which, in fact, the products of the Maple Leaf country are oriented. Today, Canada is in dire need of large exports to the United States in order to achieve even the most modest economic growth. Any sudden "cooling" in the economy south of the Canadian border causes a strong current of "cold air" to flow northward. Canada is now firmly tied to the US, with weak consumer growth and similar personal income growth. The only thing that can move its economy is the expansion of exports, and most of them are in the United States. The generally weak economic growth in Canada masks the serious problems faced by Canadians. Among them: high unemployment (about 9.5%), record consumer debt, low savings and the dire consequences caused by cuts of tens of billions of dollars in federal and provincial government budgets. Many European countries are known to have stabilized their currencies by “pegging” them to to the German mark. In Canada, the free floating exchange rate of the national currency was maintained. The central bank of the Maple Leaf country intervenes only occasionally to smooth out fluctuations in the Canadian dollar, but does not support it at any particular level. Thus, no active steps were taken to prevent the fall of the national currency at the beginning of 1994, since it is rightly expected that this fall, on the one hand, stimulates exports, and, on the other hand, switches demand for consumer goods of Canadian production. The change of government in Canada (in 1993) did not create any significant obstacles to the implementation of the agreement on the formation of the North American Free Trade Area, which included three countries of North America. Therefore, the prospects for its economic growth and an increase in the role of Canada in the modern world economy seem very certain. The European countries of the "Big Seven" occupy a special place in the world economy. According to the level of economic development, the nature of the structure of the economy, and the scale of economic activity, Western European countries are divided into several groups. The main economic power in the region falls on four large industrialized countries - Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, which concentrate 50% of the population and 70% of the gross domestic product. At the present stage in Western Europe, the potential for scientific and technical research is very high. The European countries of the G8 spend large sums of money on new research. But the overall effect is reduced by duplication of studies, so the real value of this indicator will be lower than the nominal value. Nevertheless, the European part of the G8 allocates 16% less for civilian research than the United States, but twice as much as Japan. At the same time, the expenditures of Western European countries are largely focused on fundamental research. These countries are lagging behind in such key industries as integrated circuits and semiconductors, the manufacture of microprocessors, supercomputers, and biomaterials. This is not surprising, since so far they have allocated almost as much to research in the field of microelectronics as one large company, IBM, allocates in the United States. Among the factors negatively affecting the course of economic development of Western Europe, mass unemployment stands out - up to 20 million people. More than 80% of the unemployed are concentrated in the EU countries. Their unemployment rate was 11.4% of the labor force in 1996, compared with 5.5% in the US and 3.3% in Japan. Contemporary economic development Western European countries proceeds under the sign of structural changes. These changes reflected the general trends in the development of production and the social division of labor under the conditions of a new stage in the NS, and were also the result of structural crises and crises of overproduction in the 1970s and early 1990s. 216 At the present stage, the shipbuilding, ferrous metallurgy, textile and coal industries have experienced a structural crisis. Such industries that were not so long ago growth stimulators, such as the automotive industry, chemistry, and electrical engineering, faced a reduction in domestic demand and changes in the international division of labor. The most dynamic sectors include the electronics industry, in which the production of equipment for industrial and special purposes, primarily computers, has been predominantly developed. New industries and industries have emerged related to the manufacture of robots, CNC machine tools, nuclear reactors, aerospace technology, and new means of communication. However, they were not only unable to ensure high economic growth rates, but also lagged behind the United States and Japan in their development. Domestic companies provide only 35% of the regional consumption of semiconductors, 40% of electronic components, and even less of integrated circuits. The Western European information technology industry provides 10% of the needs of the world and 40% of the regional markets. The past decade has been characterized by some lagging behind Western Europe from its main competitors in the progressiveness of the sectoral structure. High demand products account for 25% of G8 European manufacturing, about 30% in the US and almost 40% in Japan. Recently, the Western European economy has been dominated by the modernization of a profitably functioning production apparatus, rather than its radical renewal on the basis of the latest technology. As the data of cross-border comparisons on the structure of the manufacturing industry show, mechanical engineering and heavy industry have been developed in the leading countries of the region. The share of chemistry is also significant. Many Western European countries are major producers of consumer goods. The share of sectoral light industry in Italy is 18 - 24%. Most countries in the region are characterized by an increase or stabilization of the role of the food industry - both in production and in employment. The most significant are the differences in structural indicators for the share of agriculture in the formation of GDP - from 1.5 to 8%. The highly developed countries have almost reached the limit of this indicator (2-3% of GDP). With a decrease in employment to 7% of the able-bodied population (17% in 1960), there was an increase in production volumes. Western Europe accounts for about 20% of world agricultural production. Today, the leading producers of agricultural products in the EU are France (14.5%), Germany (13%), Italy (10%), Great Britain (8%). The relatively high growth rates of this industry contributed to an increase in the self-sufficiency of Western European countries in agricultural products, supplies to foreign markets are the main way to sell the "surplus" products of the region. In recent years, serious changes have taken place in the fuel and energy balance of Western European countries. As a result of the implementation of comprehensive energy programs aimed at maximizing savings and increasing the efficiency of energy use, there has been a relative reduction in energy consumption, while oil consumption has decreased absolutely. The decrease in energy consumption proceeded in the region with varying intensity, and the trend towards its increase continued. Shifts in the structure of the energy balance are associated with a drop in the share of oil (from 52 to 45%), a significant increase in the share of nuclear energy, and an increase in the role of natural gas. Natural gas is most widely used in the Netherlands, where it accounts for half of the energy consumed, and in the UK. Nuclear energy is produced and consumed in 10 countries. In a number of countries, it accounts for a significant part of the energy consumed, in France - over 75%. The shifts that have taken place in recent years in the economies of the Western European countries have gone in one direction - a reduction in the share of material production sectors in their GDP and an increase in the share of services. This sector currently largely determines the growth of national production, the dynamics of investment. It accounts for 1/3 of the economically active population. This increases the importance of the Western European countries as a financial center, a center for providing other kinds of services. The restructuring of big capital has led to a significant strengthening of the positions of Western European companies in the world economy. For the 70-80s. among the 50 largest companies in the world, the number of Western European companies increased from 9 to 24. All the largest companies are international. There have been changes in the balance of power between the West European giants. German corporations came forward, and to a lesser extent, France and Italy. The positions of British companies have weakened. Leading Western European banks have retained their positions, 23 of them are among the top 50 banks in the world (8 German and 6 French). Modern processes of monopolization in Western Europe differ from similar processes in North America. The largest Western European companies occupy the strongest positions in traditional industries, lagging far behind in the newest high-tech ones. Industry specialization largest associations Western Europe is less mobile than that of US corporations. And this, in turn, slows down the restructuring of the economy. As forecasts show, the market of the future will show less demand for mass products with the lowest possible cost. Therefore, the role of companies that rely on a broad production program with frequent changes in manufactured models and effective adaptation to changing market conditions is increasing. The economy of scale is being replaced by the economy of opportunity. The process of decentralization of production management is gaining momentum, the intra-company division of labor is growing. The progressive fragmentation of markets as the specialization of consumer demand deepens, the development of the service sector contributes to the growth of small business, which accounts for up to 30-45% of GDP. The growth of small business increases the flexibility of economic structures in relation to the needs of the market. East Asia has been considered the most dynamically developing region in the world economy in recent decades. It is no coincidence that Japan was the first among the countries of the region to make the transition to modern economic growth. The expansionist influence of the West gave Japan the impetus in the post-war period to transition to a model of modern economic growth, which was carried out much faster and more painlessly than, say, in China. As early as the end of the 19th century, starting with the Meiji reform, the Japanese government created conditions for free enterprise and initiated the modernization of the economy. A feature of the Japanese modernization of economic activity was the fact that foreign capital occupied an insignificant share in the creation of a modern economy, as well as the fact that the patriotic movement initiated by the state played a significant role in modernization. As a result, in the post-war period (over the course of one generation), Japan raised the economy from ruins to a position of parity with the richest countries in the world. She did this under conditions of democratic government and with the distribution of economic benefits among the general population. 220 The thrift and enterprise of the Japanese played a significant role in this. From the 50s. Japan's savings rate was the highest in the world, often twice or more than that of other major industrial nations. In 1970-1972 savings for Japanese households and non-corporate businesses was 16.8% of GNP, or 13.5% after depreciation, the corresponding figures for American families were 8.5% and 5.3%. Net savings of Japanese corporations amounted to 5.8% of GNP, US corporations - 1.5%. Net savings of the Japanese government - 7.3% of GNP, the US government - 0.6%. Japan's total net savings amounted to 25.4% of GNP, the US - 7.1%. This exceptionally high rate of savings has been maintained for many years and has maintained a very high rate of investment throughout this time. Over the past 40 years, Japan has grown rich at a phenomenal pace. From 1950 to 1990, real per capita income increased (in 1990 prices) from $1,230 to $23,970, i.e. the growth rate was 7.7% per year. During the same period, the United States was able to achieve income growth of only 1.9% per year. Japan's post-war economic achievements proved to be unsurpassed in world history. Japan's modern economy is remarkably dependent on small entrepreneurs. Almost one-third of the workforce is made up of self-employed and unpaid family members (compared to less than 10% in the UK and US). In the early 80s. In Japan, there were 9.5 million enterprises with fewer than 30 employees, of which 2.4 million were firms and 6 million were unincorporated non-agricultural business enterprises. These firms employed more than half of the workforce. In industry, almost half of the labor force works in enterprises with fewer than 50 workers. This proportion is repeated in Italy, but in the UK and the US the figure is around 15%. 221 The government encourages the savings and growth of small businesses through tax incentives, financial and other assistance. Small businesses form huge networks of suppliers and subcontractors to large "first", "second" and "third" monopolies. Their hands create, for example, half the cost of cars manufactured by Toyota. Japan became the first country in whose economy a balanced growth model was implemented. In 1952, Japan completed the stage of modern economic growth with annual GNP growth rates of up to 5%. From 1952 to 1972, Japan went through a period of ultra-fast growth with an annual GNP growth rate of up to 10%. From 1973 to 1990, the next stage is the stage of gradual attenuation of the ultra-fast growth of GNP (up to 5%). Since 1990, this country has also been the first and so far the only one to enter the last stage in the implementation of the same economic model of balanced growth. This is the stage of a moderate increase in the GNP of a mature market economy. And this means that the high growth rates of the Japanese economy will be replaced by an annual increase in GNP of 2-3% on average. The beginning of this stage coincided with a four-year depression in the world economy, which, after seven years of prosperity, entered into a serious economic crisis in 1990, from which Japan has been recovering ever since. This is confirmed by statistics, and in the mid-90s. Japan's economy continued to decline for the fourth year in a row. For 1992 industrial production decreased by more than 8%. This is a sharper drop than what Japan had in the late 80s. In 1993, the Japanese economy had zero growth, and in 1994 it was 0.6%, 1995 changed little, and growth remained at the level of 0.5%. And only 1996 will provide Japan's economic growth of 3.4%, and this is approximately the level that is typical for a mature market economy. In England, for example, annual growth has never exceeded 3%. 222 As is known, the economic downturns of the 70s and 80s Japan hardly noticed As a result of a combination of relatively conservative macroeconomic policies and unrivaled microeconomic flexibility, it has avoided many of the problems faced by other large industrial countries Over the past two decades, most Japanese industries have had to deal with “shocks” of the same magnitude as in other countries and regions of the world. But they have adapted so well that in many cases they have come out of difficulties even stronger than before. But the crisis of the 1990s threw a more serious challenge to the Japanese economy, which was supplemented by other circumstances: the country suffered one of the worst earthquakes in Kobe, the main port of the region, which is the center of Japanese industry. Has a direct bearing on the protracted economic downturn and the frequent change of governments in recent years. All this coincided with the period when Japan entered the final stage of the economic model of balanced growth, characterized, as already noted, by the fading and the transition to moderate economic growth. Indeed, the analysis shows that the period of high growth rates of the Japanese economy is over. Japan will have to enter the next, XXI century. with moderate, i.e. low economic growth inherent in a mature market economy. This is the result of the implementation of the balanced growth model. At the present stage of its economic development, Japan needs a new strategy and timely elaboration of a new course. And it is not yet clear whether the Land of the Rising Sun will find a new direction or will simply drift, submitting to the power of market forces. Japan has gone through tremendous change in the past 40 years and has been able to not only survive, but prosper. Most likely, this country will be able to cope with both the current and future challenges. 223 As has been shown, at the present stage of the evolution of the world economy, there are noticeable shifts in the balance of forces between its main power centers. In addition, a number of countries and regional groupings were able to make serious progress on the path of economic development and, continuing to strengthen their positions in the world community, began to exert a rather noticeable influence on the processes of improving world economic ties. In this context, it would be very interesting to identify the most important characteristics of the current position of Russia in the changing system of these relations, to determine its possible prospects. It is clear that there is a need for Russia to achieve a place corresponding to its potential in the world economy. At the same time, some inconsistency of the current positions of the Russian Federation in the world economy should be noted. Thus, on the one hand, as a result of the collapse of the once world socialist economic system and the Soviet Union, Russia has now occupied a kind of intermediate position between the most economically advanced and developing countries. According to numerous experts, the collapse of the USSR meant for Russian Federation tangible geopolitical losses and noticeable complications in its interaction with the world community.
"BIG SEVEN"
- a group of the most developed countries (Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada, USA, France, Japan), which have a significant impact on social processes in the modern world.

big seven

The most famous of the informal intergovernmental organizations is"G-7" -- a group of seven largest economies in the world: USA, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan. In fact, this is an elite club at the level of heads of state, which arose in the 70s. 20th century during the collapse of the Bretton Woods monetary system. Its main goal is to avoid a global imbalance in the world. In 1998, mainly for political reasons, Russia was admitted to the club. In July 2006, for the first time, the summit"G-8" took place in Russia in St. Petersburg. Experts note that the main result of the summit can be called the final transformation of the organization from an elite club of developed countries that made consolidated decisions on major international issues into a debating club that forms the world agenda. But such an agenda is impossible without the participation of China and India. They were present in St. Petersburg as guests, but they have every reason to become full members of the club of world leaders.

In addition to intergovernmental organizations, the number of non-governmental voluntary public organizations (NGOs) is growing. Thus, about 15,000 representatives of non-governmental organizations gathered at the World Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

Associations such as"Greenpeace", "Club of Rome", " third world network». With all the variety of such organizations, their activities are usually aimed at protecting human rights, the environment, women's rights, solving the problems of developing countries and often have an anti-globalization orientation.

In this regard, the concept« global public policy network» -- a joint initiative of NGOs, business circles, national governments, international organizations. Through these initiatives, participants develop public opinion, international norms and standards on specific contentious issues: for example, the effectiveness of building large dams. Globalization makes NGOs more and more influential and implies the creation of a transnational network of NGOs that can influence formal arrangements. Their main argument is the thesis that the established institutions of international governance suffer from a deep deficit of democracy. The activities of these organizations are not subject to the will of the population - there is no system of direct democratic elections, and information, public control and discussions are extremely limited. This means that the decisions made may be in the narrow commercial interests of certain groups of people or countries.

Content

1. History of the "Big Seven"

2. The need to create an informal club

3. Membership in the G7

4. The role of the "G7" in the world

5. Topics and meeting places"The Big Seven"

6. Name list of participants"The Big Seven"

7. England Prime Ministers

Germany - federal chancellors

Italy -- Chairmen of the Council of Ministers

Maple Leaf Country -- Prime Ministers

USA - presidents

France - presidents

Land of the Rising Sun Prime Ministers

The Big Seven are regular high-level meetings of the leaders of the seven most economically developed states - the USA, the Land of the Rising Sun, Germany, France, Italy, England, the Maple Leaf Country.

History of the "Big Seven"

The history of this international informal forum dates back to November 1975, when, at the initiative of French President V. Giscard d "Estaing, the first meeting of the leaders of six countries was held in Rambouillet, which the Maple Leaf Country joined a year later. Since 1977, representatives of the EU leadership have been participating in the meetings: the President of the European Commission and the Head of State holding the Presidency of the EU.

Purpose of creation: acceleration of integration processes; development and implementation of anti-crisis policy; coordination of economic and financial relations; allocation of priorities in the sphere of economy and politics; search for ways to overcome emerging contradictions between countries"sevens" and others. The decisions taken at the meetings are implemented both through the system of international economic organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (IMF); the World Trade Organization (WTO); Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and through state institutions"sevens".

In June 1997 at the summit in Denver (USA) it was decided to join the Russian Federation. Consequently,"seven" transformed into"eight". At the G8 summits Russia, however, has not yet taken part in the discussion of some issues. In recent years, Russia has been trying to enter this elected composition and thereby turn it into« big eight». So far, Russia has fully participated in meetings at which political issues were resolved: meetings"eights" on issues of combating terrorism in Egypt in December 1995, on nuclear security in Moscow in April 1996. However, when discussing economic issues, the President of the Russian Federation was invited only for informal negotiations during meetings"Big Seven" but not for the meetings themselves.

In April 1996, a special G-7 summit on nuclear security was held in Moscow with the full participation of the Russian Federation. In 1998 in Birmingham (Britain), the club of leaders of industrial countries finally became the "Big Eight". In 2006, Russia chairs the club, which testifies to the strengthening of the positions of the Russian Federation as an equal member of the G8 in the international political arena.

The need to create an informal club

The forum of leaders of industrialized countries owes its appearance to a series of major international events that led to crises in the global economy in the early 1970s:

The collapse of the Bretton Woods financial system and the unsuccessful attempts of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Regional Development to reform the world monetary system;

The first enlargement of the EU in 1972 and its consequences for the economy of the West;

The international oil crisis of October 1973, which led to serious disagreements between the Western powers regarding the development of a common approach to the OPEC countries;

Inflation and rising unemployment in the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, as a consequence of the oil crisis.

Membership in the "Big Seven"

Each of the members of the G-7 is included in it not only on the basis of the size of GDP, but its place is determined by the logic of post-war history and world economic development. It is clear that the United States, a world superpower with a huge industrial and, most importantly, military potential, should be No. 1 in any "seven", "eight" or "top ten". In exactly the same way as England - unspoken No. 2 in the Western hierarchy (and in some positions No. 1) - the economic and once organizational metropolis of vast territories, which has retained its influence on them to one degree or another. Australia, the Maple Leaf Country, as well as New Zealand and about fifty other small island states are its dominions to this day. The official head of state is the British Queen. Even India, having acquired full political independence more than half a century ago, has maintained the closest economic ties with England. The entire elite of Indian society was educated on the shores of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, and flights to London come from the international airports of Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta, like metro trains.

France is also a country with rich colonial traditions. Its secret services still determine political vectors and economic realities in many African regions, and sometimes the former metropolis simply sends its "limited contingent" to restore order in one or another "independent" African state. In addition, France has a certain influence in the world of culture and education, especially in the field of sociology and political science.

Germany, of course, as a country that lost in World War II, was initially heavily dependent on the first three members of the seven, which predetermined its more "modest" place in the Western hierarchy. Which, in principle, continues to exist despite the fact that today it is the most populated country in Western Europe and the most powerful industrial power on the continent.

The country of the samurai, the main and first of the "Asian tigers", personifying the "showcase of the achievements of capitalism in Asia", like Germany, initially opposed the Asian socialist countries. At the same time, the economy of the Land of the Samurai after the Second World War was very dependent on the United States - its main trading partner and political overseer (we must not forget that American bases are still located in the Land of the Rising Sun). The factories of Japanese companies are located in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, the People's Republic of China (PRC) and other countries of Southeast Asia. At the same time, the Japanese elite is isolated from the influential circles of other countries in Southeast Asia due to historical and cultural reasons, and this also makes it the safest Asian partner for the US and Europe. In fact, the Land of the Rising Sun in the G7 is the US economic trailer.

Italy is a country with great economic potential and a labor force suitable for use in highly profitable areas. For example, Italy to this day clothes and shoes the "upper middle class" and wealthy people throughout Europe. The huge Italian diasporas have great influence in the US and other countries. In addition, the Italian aristocratic clans have long and tightly integrated into the world elite.

The Maple Leaf Country is an industrial and agricultural country with vast resources. In addition, being both the closest neighbor of the United States and the British dominion, the Maple Leaf Country serves as an economic lining between these powers.

But still, the most important factor is that these seven states occupy the first places in terms of the number of transnational corporations (TNCs) created by them. And although recently, in order to reduce taxation, the head offices of many TNCs and subsidiaries are registered offshore, the real think tanks of the vast majority of corporations are located precisely in the G7 countries. The notorious globalization, both commercial and financial, concerns primarily the G7 countries. We can say that the "big seven" is business center metropolis under the general name "Western Civilization".

The role of the G7 in the world

The role of the G7 in the world is exceptionally great. In addition to the fact that there are regular meetings of ministers and the so-called "Sherpas" - assistants to world leaders - every year it gathers for its summit (usually in June-July), and this summit, the economic trading session of this summit, announces, accepts an economic communiqué that actually sets the rules of the game for the global economy next year.

It's kind of a kind of clock-matching between world leaders. And although the G7 is an absolutely informal club, in the economy it plays a role quite close to that which the UN Security Council plays in politics and military matters.

There are no formal mechanisms for the coordination of interests. But, say, the United States of America does not have the dominant position it has in NATO or the International Monetary Fund (IMF). They cannot achieve any decision, at least without the neutrality of the Land of the Samurai and Germany.

The significance of the annual economic communiqué lies not only in the fact that it is a declaration of intent by the world's largest countries, but they follow it by personal example, that is, when two-thirds of the economy plays according to the rules announced in advance to all the rest, if someone in the world starts not comply with these rules, he finds himself in the position of the very lieutenant who steps in step at a time when the rest of the company is out of step.

I must say that despite the natural inertia for such a large structure, well, you can't avoid bureaucratization when you have seven governments working at the same time. The G7 is an extremely effective mechanism for overcoming crises that have already arisen. It cannot, at least so far it has not been able to predict the crises that are only expected and act preventively.
etc.................

The G8 does not have its own charter, headquarters and secretariat. Unlike the informal but broader World Economic Forum, it does not have a public relations department or even a website. However, the G8 is one of the most important international actors in the world today. It is on a par with such "classical" international organizations as the IMF, WTO, OECD.

History of occurrence and stages of development. The G8 owes its appearance to a series of major international events that led to crises in the world economy in the early 1970s.

1) The collapse of the Bretton Woods financial system and unsuccessful attempts by the IMF and IBRD to reform the world monetary system;

2) the first enlargement of the EU in 1972 and its consequences for the economy of the West;

3) the first international oil crisis in October 1973, which led to serious disagreements between Western countries regarding a common position with the OPEC countries;

4) the economic recession that began in 1974 as a consequence of the oil crisis in the OEECD countries, accompanied by inflation and rising unemployment.

Under these conditions, a need arose for a new mechanism for coordinating the interests of the leading Western countries. Since 1973, the finance ministers of the United States, Germany, Great Britain and France, and later of Japan, began to meet periodically in an informal setting to discuss problems of the international financial system. In 1975, French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt (both former finance ministers) invited the heads of other leading Western states to gather in a narrow informal circle for face-to-face communication. The first summit was held in 1975 in Rambouillet with the participation of the United States, Germany , Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan.In 1976, Canada joined the club, and since 1977 - the European Union as a spokesman for the interests of all its member countries.

There are several approaches to periodization of the G8 history.

According to the topics of meetings and activities, there are 4 stages in the development of the G7/G8:

1. 1975-1980 - very ambitious plans for the development of the economic policy of the member countries;

2. 1981-1988 - increased attention to non-economic issues of foreign policy;

Functioning mechanism. From the point of view of institutional development, experts distinguish 4 cycles:

1) 1975-1981 - annual meetings of leaders of states and accompanying ministers of finance and foreign affairs.

2) 1982-1988 - the "seven" is overgrown with autonomous summits at the ministerial level: trade, foreign affairs, finance.

3) 1989-1995 - the birth in 1991 of the annual "post-summit" meeting of the "group of seven" with the USSR / RF, an increase in the number of departments holding their meetings at the ministerial level (for example, environment, security, etc.);

4) 1995 - present Attempts to reform the scheme of G8 meetings by simplifying the agenda and principles of its work.

At the beginning of the 21st century The G8 is an annual summit of heads of state and meetings of ministers or officials, both regular and ad hoc - "on the occasion", the materials of which sometimes get into the press, and sometimes are not published.

The so-called "Sherpas" play a key role in holding the summits. Sherpas in the Himalayas are called local guides who help climbers climb to the top. Considering that the very word “summit” in English means a high mountain peak, it turns out that “sherpa” in diplomatic language is the main coordinator helping his president or minister to understand all the problems discussed at the summit.

They also prepare draft versions and agree on the final text of the communiqué, the main document of the summit. It may contain direct recommendations, appeals to member countries, setting tasks to be solved within the framework of other international organizations, a decision to establish a new international body. The communiqué is read out by the President of the country hosting the G8 summit in compliance with the corresponding solemn ceremony.

Russia in the G8. The question of whether the G8 was a full-fledged G8 when the G7 plus one became the G8 is the question of what role Russia has played and is playing in this organization is still a matter of great controversy. Its membership in the G8 was initially perceived with great reservations and criticism both abroad and in Russia itself. However, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. in Russia and abroad, a more serious interest in this topic has appeared, a more respectful and informed attitude on the part of public opinion and the media.

Significance. The value of the G8 lies in the fact that in the modern world the heads of state are so busy that they do not have the opportunity to go beyond communicating with a narrow circle of close associates and considering the most pressing, current problems. The G-8 summits free them from this routine and allow them to take a broader look at international problems through different eyes, providing a real opportunity for establishing understanding and coordinating actions. In the words of Joe Clark, "they free multilateral negotiations from their inherent red tape and mistrust." According to the authoritative opinion of the research group of the Atlantic Council, the G8 summits are less and less striking the world with global initiatives and are increasingly turning into a forum for identifying new threats and problems with a view to their subsequent solution within the framework of other international organizations.

Criticism of the G8. Accusations of elitism, non-democratism and hegemonism of the G8, demands to pay the so-called "environmental debt" of developed countries to the third world, etc. characteristic of the criticism of the G8 by anti-globalists. At the G8 summit in Genoa in 2001, due to the most massive actions of anti-globalists, the work of the forum was significantly hindered, and as a result of clashes with the police, one of the demonstrators died. In June 2002, during the G8 summit in Canada, Mali hosted the “anti-summit of the G8” – a meeting of activists of the anti-globalization movement from Africa, Europe, America, who discussed the prospects for the economic recovery of the most backward African countries. In 2003, in the French town of Anmas, in parallel with the G8 summit in Evian, an anti-globalization forum was held, in which 3,000 people participated. Its agenda completely copied the program of the official meeting in Evian, and the goal was to demonstrate the need to discuss alternative programs for world development and governance that would be more humane and take into account the real needs of the majority of the world's population.

Public criticism of the G8 by the general public at the turn of the century is complemented by criticism of the G8's activities from within. Thus, a group of leading independent experts from the G8 countries, which prepares annual reports for the summit meetings of the leaders of the member countries, in its recommendations for the Evian summit (2003) noted a decline in the effectiveness of the G8's work. In their opinion, the recent rejection of self-criticism and critical analysis of the G8 members' own policies has led this forum to stall, losing the ability to adopt the necessary changes in the economic policies of its members. This translates into active propaganda of reforms in countries that are not members of the club, which entails natural discontent among the rest of the international community and threatens a crisis of legitimacy for the G8 itself.

New trends and plans for reforming the G8. The question of the need for changes in the functioning of the G8 was first raised by British Prime Minister John Major in 1995. One of the steps towards the wind of change was the expansion of this club by admitting Russia in 1998. In order to get away from the excessive officialdom that became to accompany every meeting of the G8, and as a response to the criticism of other participants in international relations, various members of the G8 began to put forward plans to reform the format and composition of the club.

Thus, in Paris, ideas were put forward to replace the meetings of leaders with another form of communication, such as videoconferencing, which would avoid the unhealthy hype and huge security costs during the summits. Canadian diplomats put forward plans to transform the G8 into the G20, which would include Australia, Singapore and a number of other new active players in the world economy.

But the more participants, the more difficult it becomes to make consistent decisions. In this regard, a number of experts even spoke in favor of delegating all representative functions from European member countries (England, France, Italy) to the European Union as a single spokesman for their interests, which would help open up new places at the round table.

In 1997 Tony Blair did what John Major had voiced. He used the Birmingham summit to work out a new model for meetings of G8 leaders. It was the first summit where the leaders met in private, at the premier's country residence, without the long entourage of their ministers, allowing for a more relaxed and informal dialogue. It was characterized by a simplified preparation, a simpler agenda, shorter and more understandable final documents. This meeting format was later used in Colon (1999) and Okinawa (2000).

At the same time, the list of topics discussed is also being updated - new challenges of the 21st century make the G8 talk about cybercrime, terrorism, and the problem of renewable energy sources.

MAIN G8 SUMMITS

1975 Rambouillet: unemployment, inflation, energy crisis, structural reform of the international monetary system.

1976 Puerto Rico: International Trade, East-West Relations.

1977 London: youth unemployment, the role of the International Monetary Fund in stabilizing the world economy, alternative energy sources that reduce the dependence of developed countries on oil exporters.

1978 Bonn: measures to curb inflation in the G7 countries, assistance to developing countries through the World Bank and regional development banks.

1979 Tokyo: rising oil prices and energy shortages, the need to develop nuclear energy, the problem of refugees from Indochina.

1980 Venice: rising world oil prices and increasing external debt of developing countries, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, international terrorism.

1981 Ottawa: population growth, economic relations with the East, taking into account the security interests of the West, the situation in the Middle East, the buildup of armaments in the USSR.

1982 Versailles: the development of economic relations with the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe, the situation in Lebanon.

1983 Williamsburg (USA, Virginia): financial situation in the world, debts of developing countries, arms control.

1984 London: the beginning of the recovery of the world economy, the Iran-Iraq conflict, the fight against international terrorism, the support of democratic values.

1985 Bonn: The Dangers of Economic Protectionism, Environmental Policy, Cooperation in Science and Technology.

1986 Tokyo: determination of medium-term tax and financial policies for each of the G7 countries, ways to combat international terrorism, the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

1987 Venice: The situation in the agriculture of the G7 countries, lowering interest rates on foreign debt for the poorest countries, global climate change, restructuring in the USSR.

1988 Toronto: need to reform GATT, role of Asia-Pacific countries in international trade, debts of the poorest countries and change in the schedule of payments to the Paris Club, the beginning of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, the contingents of Soviet troops in Eastern Europe.

1989 Paris: Dialogue with Asian Tigers, economic situation in Yugoslavia, strategizing towards debtor countries, rising drug addiction, AIDS cooperation, human rights in China, economic reforms in Eastern Europe, Arab-Israeli conflict.

1990 Houston (USA, Texas): investments and loans for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the situation in the USSR and assistance to the Soviet Union in creating a market economy, creating a favorable investment climate in developing countries, the unification of Germany.

1991 London: financial aid the Persian Gulf countries affected by the war; migration to the countries of the "Seven"; non-proliferation of nuclear, chemical, biological weapons and conventional weapons.

1992 Munich (Germany): environmental problems, support for market reforms in Poland, relations with the CIS countries, ensuring the safety of nuclear facilities in these countries, partnership between the G7 and the countries of the Asia-Pacific region, the role of the OSCE in ensuring equal rights for national and other minorities, the situation in the former Yugoslavia.

1993 Tokyo: situation in transition countries, elimination of nuclear weapons in the CIS, compliance with the missile technology control regime, deteriorating situation in the former Yugoslavia, peace efforts in the Middle East.

1994 Naples: economic development in the Middle East, nuclear security in Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS, international crime and money laundering, the situation in Sarajevo, North Korea after the death of Kim Il Sung.

1995 Halifax (Canada): new form holding summits, the reform of international institutions - the IMF, the World Bank, the prevention of economic crises and the strategy for overcoming them, the situation in the former Yugoslavia.

1996 Moscow: nuclear security, the fight against illicit trade in nuclear materials, the situation in Lebanon and the Middle East peace process, the situation in Ukraine.

1996 Lyon (France): global partnership, integration of countries with economies in transition into the world economic community, international terrorism, the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

1997 Denver (USA, Colorado): population aging, development of small and medium-sized businesses, ecology and children's health, distribution infectious diseases, transnational organized crime, human cloning, UN reform, space exploration, anti-personnel mines, the political situation in Hong Kong, the Middle East, Cyprus and Albania.

1998 Birmingham (Great Britain): new format of summits - "only leaders", finance ministers and foreign ministers meet in the run-up to the summits. Global and regional security.

1999 Cologne (Germany): social significance of economic globalization, debt relief for the poorest countries, the fight against international financial crime.

2000 Okinawa (Japan): the impact of information technology development on the economy and finance, tuberculosis control, education, biotechnology, conflict prevention.

2001 Genoa (Italy): development problems, fight against poverty, food security, the problem of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, nuclear disarmament, the role of non-governmental organizations, the situation in the Balkans and the Middle East.

2002 Kananaskis (Canada): Aiding African Developing Countries, Fighting Terrorism and Strengthening World Economic Growth, Ensuring International Cargo Security.

25. International relationships in Africa. Main directions and
trends. Russian policy in the region.

Big Seven (G7) is a group of seven industrialized countries: Japan, France, USA, Canada, Italy, Germany and the UK (see Fig. 1). G7 was created during the oil crisis of the 1970s of the last century - as an informal club. The main goals of creation:

coordination of financial and economic relations;
acceleration of integration processes;
development and effective implementation of anti-crisis policy;
search for all possible ways to overcome the contradictions that arise both between the countries - members of the Big Seven, and with other states;
allocation of priorities in the economic and political spheres.

(Fig. 1 - Flags of the countries participating in the "Big Seven")

According to the provisions of the G7, the decisions taken at the meetings should be implemented not only through the system of major international economic organizations (such as the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), but also through the state institutions of the G7.

The decision to hold meetings of the leaders of the above countries was made in connection with the aggravation of relations between Japan, Western Europe and the United States on a number of financial and economic issues. The first meeting was organized by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (then President of France) at Rambouillet on November 15-17, 1975. It brought together the heads of six countries: Japan, France, Germany, the USA, Italy and the UK. Canada joined the club in 1976 at a meeting in Puerto Rico. Since that time, the meetings of the participating countries have become known as G7 "summits" and take place on a regular basis.

In 1977, the leaders of the European Union arrived as observers at the summit, which was hosted by London. Since then, their participation in these meetings has become a tradition. Since 1982, the scope of the G7 has also included political issues.

Russia's first participation in the G7 took place in 1991, when Mikhail Gorbachev, the President of the USSR, was invited to the summit. But only in June 1997, at a meeting in Denver, it was decided to join the "club of seven" of Russia. However, Russia does not take part in the discussion of some issues to this day.