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Do-it-yourself mechanical press for grapes. How to make a grape press? Drawings of homemade grape presses

Why do we need wine presses, what tasks do they solve, what are they and how to use them correctly? This topic is devoted to all of today's lesson in the "School of Craft". It is important not only to choose the appropriate design, but also to understand how and why to use it. The bell rang and the lesson began.

This is how grapes were pressed in sultry Italy

Squeeze dry?

The very name of the equipment makes it clear that it is used to squeeze moisture from crushed raw materials. You can squeeze both juice and must in a press, depending on which technology you use to make wine.

How long should the pressing pressure be? The pulp is squeezed until the juice stops flowing from it. In some cases, it is possible to carry out a secondary spin, but for this, the mass is crushed again. Sometimes a small amount of water is added to it to "revive" the pulp. The resulting juice or wine of the second pressing will be inferior in quality to the first.

Preparing for pressing

It is very important to properly prepare the material for pressing. Only crushed material is pressed. Even if you are going to make wine from soft berries, they need to be crushed into pulp, and only then put under pressure.

Why crush berries at all?

  • To squeeze out more juice.
  • In order not to break the press. If you put whole berries, then in an attempt to squeeze maximum amount juice can break the machine.

If you press the pulp, then before the first pressure it is not processed additionally, but for the second and subsequent pressings, the pulp also needs to be crushed.

The stages of pulp pressing

I will say right away: the technologies for making red and white wine are different from each other. If you have the time, desire and inspiration to make a real, proper red wine, then you will have to strain a little.

  • First you need to make the pulp and put it on fermentation along with the berry peel and skins.
  • After the fermentation is completed, the pulp falls to the bottom of the container with the wort.
  • Part of the wine is drained by gravity, and the remaining pulp is unloaded from the pressing tank.

Pressed wines have a higher saturation of tannins, minerals and have a brighter color. For pressing wine good quality, the wort during fermentation must be constantly stirred for better aeration.

The easiest option is to crush the berries, squeeze the juice and put it on fermentation. This is done when you want to get homemade wine with minimal effort.

Separation of wort by gravity

From the very beginning of the drain, the wort flows under the influence of gravity, and not under pressure. Samotec in Bordeaux is called "great wine". It differs not only in the method of obtaining, but also in characteristics. It balances sugar content and acidity. The taste is more subtle and soft due to fewer tannins. At the same time, the product has a weaker color and a reduced amount of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the anti-inflammatory properties of wine. Wines separated by gravity are more susceptible to the formation of yeast and sour odors. Therefore, they are mixed with pressed wine, to give depth to the taste and color.

First pressure wort

After the wine has been drained or pumped out, we need to press the remaining must. The wort is removed from the vat or bottle, moved to the press and pressed. The result is a pressed wine of the first extraction. It has a low alcohol content and an increased sugar content, but no excess sugar content is observed. The wort of the first pressure has a brighter color and a more tart taste due to the increased content of anthocyanins and tannins. It does not contain malic acid, taste qualities appear brightly.

The must can be blended (blended) with the "big wine" immediately after the end of the pressing. Thus, young table wines are obtained.

Second pressure wort

But the first spin does not completely free the pulp from the must. Therefore, we allow the second and even the third spin. Before each subsequent pressing, the residue is crushed additionally in order to achieve a greater degree of grinding of the material. Naturally, repeated crushing causes the destruction of the pulp material, releasing more bitter and astringent fractions. The wort of the second extraction contains sugar, malic acid, has a high content of tannins. It is not blended immediately, but allowed to mature separately, and only after that it is put into action. The must of the second extraction is used to obtain dessert wine.

Third pressure wort

We grind the pulp again and send it under the press again. As a result of the third pressing, we get a wine with high acidity, a high content of tannins, but the level of sugars in it is minimal. The content of anthocyanins falls, as does color saturation. The must of the third pressing is not added to young wines. It is used to produce vintage wines, as well as strong red wines.

If you continue to squeeze the must, then the resulting raw materials can be used to make grape spirit.

Live wood or cold steel?

Whatever technology you use to make wine, you still cannot do without a press.

What do you prefer - a press made of wood or metal? For the manufacture of presses and their individual elements, hardwood is used. Beech is very common, as it is solid and relatively available material. I must say that today presses made of solid wood are becoming less and less common, and they are expensive. The most common option is a combination of materials, when the bed is made of metal and the basket is made of wood.

If you come across a press made entirely of wood at a price below 6-7 thousand, then do not rush to grab your wallet, but specify the material of manufacture. Most likely, the device is made of plywood and will quickly become unusable under the influence of moisture.

Metal presses have many advantages, so they are very popular. They are characterized by ease of maintenance and operation, they are sold in a huge range of volumes and prices. The main condition is that the metal for the press must have a protective coating that prevents the formation of rust. Stainless steel presses are not subject to corrosion.

As a rule, we choose the material for the press, based on taste preferences and possibilities. In addition, if you are looking for productive automatic presses, then they are overwhelmingly made of metal and other lightweight modern materials.

Basic design of wine presses

The general arrangement of a wine press is well described by its colloquial name: a press.

There is a place for laying the crushed raw materials, there is a tray for draining the liquid fraction. A plate or drainage grate that is in direct contact with the pulp is subjected to pressure by various mechanisms. For screw press- this is a screw, for hydraulic - a hydraulic jack or a membrane. Under pressure, liquid is squeezed out of the pulp. It flows into the pan, and from there into the prepared container.

There are other designs, such as membrane kegs popular in hydraulic and pneumatic presses. Expanding, it crushes the pulp, and the liquid is squeezed out of the barrel, flowing down the outer walls into the pan. The pulp remains on the walls.

Even the simplest screw hand press turns out to be an order of magnitude more efficient in spinning than manual labor. If we talk about automatic or mechanical presses, then the extraction takes place in them, literally, “one left”.

The main rule for the safety and security of the press is the laying of only crushed raw materials, since the pressure must be uniform. The laying of unground fruits or berries is fraught with failure of the pressing mechanism.

Types of wine presses

As I said above, the types of presses according to the principle of operation are very diverse. All of them are actively represented on the market and are intended to facilitate the work of winemakers. Let's talk about the most popular and common types.

Mechanical hand press

Its structure and principle of operation will seem familiar even to those who have never dealt with pressing. Here are the main building blocks.

  • Perforated basket for laying pulp.
  • Cover or bag to prevent splashing.
  • screw mechanism.
  • Pressing plane.
  • Stand with receiving tray.

The pulp is loaded into the basket. Manual rotation actuates screw mechanism, which lowers the plane onto the pulp. The descending piston creates the necessary force for pressure, under pressure the liquid flows into the receiving pan, from there into the collection container.

Design advantages.

  • Easy to manage and operate.
  • Cheapness
  • Compact dimensions
  • Variability.
  • Relatively high performance, higher than the same juicer.
  • The most gentle and high-quality spin.
  • It can be made of wood, which provides the most natural taste of the future drink.
  • Does not require additional water or electricity costs.

Of the minuses, it should be noted the need for significant muscular effort.

It is best suited for small pressing volumes, for example, for seasonal laying of wine from a personal subsidiary plot. Easily allows you to get from 4 to 15 liters from one tab of raw materials, depending on the model. The cheapest and most economical option for the press.

Pneumatic press

In the design of this press, the force is generated using compressed air.

The principle of operation is simple. The pulp is loaded into a keg or basket. The membrane acts as a crusher, which is actuated compressed air. Under air pressure, the membrane expands, squeezing the juice out of the pulp.

Advantages of a pneumatic press.

  • High performance.
  • High efficiency.
  • A minimum of effort - even a woman can work with the press.

The disadvantage is the rather high cost, which increases the need additional connection compressor as a source of compressed air.

A pneumatic press is suitable for those who plan to engage in winemaking on a relatively regular basis or create a family business. Of the mechanical and manual presses - the most expensive. Even higher are the prices for pneumatic membrane presses.

Hydraulic Press

As the name suggests, pressure is provided by a hydraulic mechanism. This may be a hydraulic jack, as in some manual presses. Or maybe an expanding membrane.

Among hydraulic devices, there are designs that use not a plate or a membrane, but a drainage frame. Between them place raw materials packed in fabric bundles or bags. With the help of a hydraulic jack, the device is driven, developing great effort and showing excellent efficiency.

Advantages of a hydraulic press

  • Efficiency.
  • High performance.
  • It does not require electricity, which means that there are no additional costs for it.
  • It comes in a variety of options so you can choose what you need.

The downside is the rather high price, water consumption, and some structures, for example, a drainage hydraulic press, require quite a lot of space.

The hydraulic press provides high productivity. Many models give 30-40 liters from one tab of pulp. Suitable for trying your hand at craft winemaking on an ongoing basis. It costs less than pneumatic models, but more than manual screw ones.

Electro-hydraulic press

A productive and powerful device, which is used in cases where the power of mechanical and, especially, manual models is not enough. The design of the device resembles a hydraulic screw press, which is driven by an electric motor.

Of the pluses, I note high productivity, ease of use, spin efficiency.

The disadvantages include the high price, additional electricity costs. The electro-hydraulic press has big weight. It cannot be transported like a conventional handheld device. But it saves your time and energy as much as possible. Its use is justified in cases where you want to make your own wine on an ongoing basis. Well, or if you are an advocate of ergonomics and want your every movement to bring maximum effect.







What to look for when choosing a wine press?

What criteria should be used as the basis for choosing a press?

Mounting location: floor or desktop

For large rooms, it is logical to choose a floor press. As a rule, such devices are characterized by a large capacity.

If the size of the room is limited, it is necessary to place the equipment compactly and conveniently, then opt for desktop presses, especially since among them there are roomy models for 8–10 liters of the finished product.

Volume

The press has two volume characteristics - loading (basket volume) and output.

The basket volume indicates how much raw material the press can take at one time. The second is how much juice or wine the press produces in one cycle of work with a full load.

So, a press with a basket of 20 liters gives 8-12 liters of product. Equipment for 10 liters of raw material loading will give out 4-6 liters of juice.

The choice depends on what volumes you intend to work with. Take the press not "for growth", but based on real needs.

Draw your attention! It is impossible to achieve the same yield of juice for all types of raw materials. If it is said that the press allows you to get 4-6 liters of juice from 10 kg of products, then this is an average figure. Pressing, say, grapes will give you such a volume, but there will be much less juice from currants. Therefore, I give the output volume figures as averages.

Automatic or manual

I already spoke about this above. The more raw materials for processing, the more work. Therefore, to obtain wine from your own grapes or apples, you can take a manual press. If you have plans to process hundreds of kilograms of fruit and berry products, then it is worth investing in a productive automatic press.

Production material and price

Depends on your tastes and possibilities. Moreover, most modern models still have a stainless steel working part.

Practical part

To consolidate the theory, watch the video that will help you understand the issue.

Homework

Send in a photo of the press you use or the one you have planned for yourself. Explain why you like this model.

In this lesson, we got acquainted with wine presses, learned about different types presses, what tasks they solve, how to use them correctly and figured out the intricacies of pressed wine.

Add hashtags to your homework #craft_school #cosmogon


A grape press is often used in the preparation of grape juice and wine. It is popular not only in small private farms, but also in industry. Such devices are different types, manual, electric, and if you wish, you can make a grape press with your own hands.

What is a grape press

A grape press is a machine that extracts juice from grapes. Such juice can be used simply for making wine, but it is very concentrated, so it is often diluted while drinking. But most often a grape press is used in the preparation of high-quality must.

During the extraction of grape juice by a press, the bones are almost never crushed, which means that the taste of the must does not deteriorate.

The device is a pressure device. When grapes are poured into the basket, the squeezing process begins. The piston under pressure crushes the grapes and the juice begins to ooze out of it, falling into a large canister. When the tap on the tank is opened, the juice flows out. Thus, it is convenient to bottle, jar. The juice from the grapes is squeezed 2-3 times, of course, the highest quality product is obtained during the first pressing.

Types of presses

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When choosing a grape press, you need to consider what type of device is suitable. the best way and will bring many benefits.


What materials are used for presses

In order for the press mechanism to work correctly, many different parts are used that are made of various materials. But depending on what material dominates in the press, they are of several types, the most popular of which are only two.

  • The wooden press is environmentally friendly and safe. In such a press, you can make high-quality juice. However, a wooden press requires careful and proper care, disinfection, otherwise it will not last long.

Experienced winemakers do not advise squeezing juice from one batch of grapes more than 3 times. After the 3rd spin, the raw materials need to be changed!

  • The metal press is made of cast iron or stainless steel. Such material is hygienic, easy to clean, durable. If the metal is of good quality, then it will not spoil the smell or taste of the juice.

How to make a do-it-yourself grape press

The price categories of a grape press depend on the material from which it is made, size, functionality, characteristics and some other qualities. And yet it is not a cheap mechanism. Therefore, many growers make a press for squeezing grapes with their own hands.

The dimensions of the various parts depend on the size of the press needed, so they may differ in different cases. You can take a large or small basket for grapes, and the rest of the details, their dimensions depend on this, the main element. This is important to consider! So, how to make a grape press with your own hands?

  1. The first thing to do is a basket for fresh grapes. To do this, you can take an old tank, a drum from washing machine, a large saucepan or something like that. Holes are made in the walls of this container in a checkerboard pattern with a distance between holes of 2-3 cm and a distance between rows of 2-4 cm. The diameter of the holes should be small, only so that the juice can ooze.
  2. If you need a grape press for a long time, then it is better to find a stainless steel cylinder, or find a fine stainless steel mesh and make a cylinder from it. This design is not subject to rust, does not oxidize and will not give the juice a metallic taste.

You can make a grape press with your own hands not only from metal, but also from wood, but it will take more time and effort, otherwise the design will be unreliable.


Now the structure is assembled and tested. A basket filled with grapes is placed in a basin with a faucet. Next, install in a frame with a press. The basket with grapes is closed with a pancake and placed exactly under the jack. When the jack begins to unwind, under its action the pancake crushes the grapes and juice oozes out of it. Grape juice enters the basin through the holes of the cylinder, and drains through the tap. To get a purer juice, it is filtered through cheesecloth or a sieve.

As you can see, the design is quite simple, but it also needs to be properly looked after, otherwise it will not last long. After each use, all components are washed and dried. And while working, the grapes are choked intermittently so that too much pressure is not created inside, then it will be of high quality.

If it is necessary to process a large amount of grapes or other fruits in order to obtain alcoholic drink, you can not do without such a device as a wine press. It allows you to get the maximum amount of juice in a short time even from large volumes of raw materials. The device has a simple design, so that operation does not cause any problems even for beginners.

Design features and benefits of use

Currently on sale are various options grape press designs. But at the heart of each are such nodes:

  • Base that includes berry baskets and a frame.
  • A pressure device, for example, a shaft or a jack.
  • Pressing piston.
  • Tray for collecting squeezed juice.

Any modification of the press is a pressure device, as a result of which the juice is squeezed out and redirected to a separate container. According to their type, they can be:

  • Mechanical, characterized by compact size and affordable cost. The device is a cast iron frame and a fruit basket, its action is based on the use of the winemaker's physical strength. After twisting the pressing piston, it goes down, crushing the berries. The productivity of such a device is not too high and therefore it is recommended for making wines at home.
  • Electric - a more complex device made of stainless steel. The necessary pressure is provided by a hydraulic or pneumatic press. They are characterized by high productivity, due to which electric presses are used in factories or private large wineries.

According to its specification, the press can be universal, that is, suitable for squeezing juice of any fruit and berries, as well as specialized, designed for certain raw materials.

The advantages of using a wine filter press are obvious:

  • Allows you to get the maximum amount of juice, which is especially important if you need to work with low-juicy raw materials.
  • The squeezed juice contains large quantity micro and macro elements, since it is less in contact with oxygen and does not heat up.
  • Foaming is almost completely absent.
  • During the pressing process, the bones, skins and ridges are not damaged, so the must does not taste bitter.

When choosing a press, you need to remember that stainless steel designs are more practical, as they are easier to clean and disinfect. Wooden modifications are considered environmentally friendly, but they need to be regularly inspected for the appearance of mold and fungi. You also need regular steaming, competent disinfection.

We make a grape press with our own hands

Both metal and wooden presses can be purchased at any specialized store. But you can make them if you want. on their own, having received no less high-quality and effective device.

In order to make a metal press you need:

  • Prepare two cylindrical containers of different diameters - the smaller one will be a basket for berries, and the larger one is designed to collect juice. The tank from the washing machine is perfect for this.
  • In a container with a smaller diameter, holes are made in a checkerboard pattern.
  • Prepare a pressing body, which can be used as a flange, as well as a threaded rod, for example, a screw from a water valve. The flange is welded to the bottom of the screw.
  • A head with a hole for the lever is welded to the top of the screw, thanks to which the entire system will work.
  • Weld a U-shaped frame from metal profiles, which can either be concreted into the base or bolted to any surface.
  • Weld a nut into the horizontal beam of the frame, which will work in tandem with the screw.
  • Make a rectangular pan with sides and a small bevel (or tube) to drain the juice.

After preparing all the structural elements, you can begin to assemble it. To begin with, the frame is fixed in the chosen way, after that, a screw is screwed into it, and only then a head with a lever is welded to it. First, a pallet is installed under the frame, and containers inserted into each other are already placed on it. Grapes or other berries are placed in a small container, and then a flange is lowered into it by setting in motion a thrust mechanism. As the juice is squeezed out, the flange lowers more and more, providing the necessary pressing force.

Grape press - essential tool in the arsenal of any winemaker. True, the prices for this unit in the factory version are very high. Therefore, many owners of vineyards prefer to make this device on their own. Moreover, there is nothing supernatural in this unit. In extreme cases, grapes can be crushed with your feet, and very successfully, as Adriano Celentano demonstrated in the famous film. But it's better to use special means. You can make a grape press with your own hands from the simplest materials at hand.

Press designs

It is unlikely that for squeezing juice from two or three kilograms of grapes it is worth collecting a press. For this purpose, a meat grinder or blender is quite suitable, with which you can chop the berries and then squeeze the juice through gauze. If we are talking about tens of kilograms, then you definitely can’t do without a press.

For high-quality squeezing of berries in order to make juice or wine, many devices of their own manufacture are used. Drawings of homemade presses for squeezing berries can be found without difficulty. The two most common types of press designs are:

  • lever;
  • screw.

The former are easier to make. Their disadvantage is that even with the use of a lever, the squeezing force is not enough for high-quality squeezing of berries. And getting something from the second or third spin will be almost impossible.

Lever Type Crusher

Crushing one grape with your hands is easy. It is quite another when there are thousands of these berries. Together they create serious resistance to compression, so the force must be appropriate. The simplest thing in this case is to use a lever.

For the manufacture of such primitive crushes, hardwood bars can be used. Of course, it will not be possible to squeeze out the pulp with such devices. Yes, and labor productivity will leave much to be desired. If you put up with the increased losses and have nothing else in stock, then you can build such simple devices. The undoubted advantage of such homemade products is ease of manufacture. In addition, by actually squeezing berries manually, at the same time you can bring yourself into a good physical form.

Screw wringers

The principle of operation of a screw press is to create a constant pressure, controlled by tightening a screw with a thrust thread. The pressure of such a mechanical press is much higher than the lever one, besides, the constant force of the impact expels the juice from the pulp better.

But greater efforts require greater structural strength, so it is better to make it from metal. The screw press consists of the following parts:

  • support frame;
  • screw with handle;
  • piston;
  • pallet;
  • separator basket.

This design allows you to squeeze juice quite efficiently, and not only from grapes, but also from more dense fruits. It can even be used for tough fruits like apples. The frame design is both fully welded and collapsible. Such a press works as follows. Rotating the handle, the screw is turned out to the end. A stainless steel tray is installed on the frame, which acts as a bottom and at the same time collects the juice. A basket with loaded berries is installed under the piston.

To reduce losses from splashes, it is advisable to make a solid fence around the separator from a thin stainless sheet. By turning the screw handle, the piston creates pressure, squeezing out the juice, which flows onto the tray and from there is discharged into another container.

Instead of a screw in such a frame structure, you can use a conventional manual screw or hydraulic jack. It is installed in the gap between the piston and the upper edge of the frame.

Gradually raising the jack and placing thick bars under it, you can achieve the same result as on a screw press.

When using a hydraulic jack, it is important to prevent hydraulic fluid or oil from getting on the berries.

DIY screw press

The most difficult when self-manufacturing screw press to find a pair of screw - running nut. It’s good if there is a familiar turner to whom this pair can be ordered.

For the manufacture of the frame, you will need a metal profile 40x40 or a corner. It can be made both collapsible, fastening the parts with bolts, and all-welded. The frame is a U-shaped profile connected at the bottom with a cruciform base.

A round metal platform is attached to the base, on which the pallet will be installed. A running nut is fixed in the upper part of the frame with bolts or welding. The pallet can be made from a sheet of duralumin or stainless steel by simply bending it around the edges.

The height and width of the frame must be calculated based on the dimensions of the separator basket. Taking into account the diameter of the basket, a wooden piston is also made, which is several fastened wooden bars, sawn around the circumference.

To prevent the screw from splitting the piston, a thick metal plate is installed at the contact point.

wooden basket

The separator basket is a kind of sieve that retains the pulp, but lets the juice through. Traditionally it is made of stainless steel. But you can make it yourself from wooden blocks (it is advisable to use oak or other hardwoods) and metal tape.

At home, the easiest way is to make a non-separable separator. To do this, the bars at regular intervals are attached to the tape using stainless steel screws, leaving a small gap between them. Then this kind of mat is wrapped around the piston to fix the desired diameter. After that, twist the last pair of screws. Such a wooden barrel with slots will quite successfully replace stainless steel.

For greater convenience, the separator can be made collapsible. To do this, you can assemble it from two halves by connecting them with pins. Washing this design will be much easier.

Important! When using a wooden separator, be sure to rinse and dry it after wringing it to avoid mold infection!

The end of summer and the beginning of autumn is the period of mass gathering of vegetables, fruits and berries. A bountiful harvest is great, but it all needs to be recycled. For example, making juice from grapes or apples is a laborious process. You can get by with an ordinary juicer, but if there are a lot of raw materials, then it will take a lot of time. It is better to use a special press. Let's figure out how to make a grape press with your own hands.

Grape press: simple design

Those presses that are sold in stores are diverse, one significant disadvantage of such mechanisms is the high price. With some skills, the device can be made independently, while saving enough money. In particular, the grape press will be indispensable helpers for winemakers.

Protozoa homemade press for grapes is a screw structure consisting of the following elements:

  • base (frame and basket);
  • pressure device (jack or shaft);
  • pressing piston.

To make a grape press, you will need the following items and equipment: welding machine, a drill and a grinder, a tank of 50 liters, a metal channel (10-12 mm; 150 mm), a corner (40-50 mm; 3200 mm), wooden slats (40x25x400 mm) - 50 pieces, a jack, fabric ( square meter), 2 mm fishing line - 3 meters, crane.

Manufacturing process

Work should begin with the preparation of the base of the entire structure.

Frame. This element must meet high strength requirements, since it will bear the main load. The side parts are made from corners, the height of which is 85 cm. The lower and upper parts are a channel 70 cm long. Welding is used to connect the frame elements.

Advice! To enhance the strength of the structure, you can additionally weld a scarf between the channel and the corners.

The finished frame is sanded and covered with paint for metal.

The tank must be stainless steel. At the bottom of the tank, it is necessary to drill a hole in which the crane will be attached.

Advice! Instead of a tank, you can use a stainless steel pot that is suitable in size.

A lattice of wooden slats is inserted into the container. The height of the rails must be equal to the height of the tank. Holes (2-3 mm) are drilled at the ends of the rails, through which a fishing line or stainless steel wire is pulled. The result should be a kind of basket through which the juice will ooze. The gap between the rails should be no more than 2-3 mm.

You can not use the tank at all. The slats are pulled together with a galvanized hoop, the basket is installed in a tray where the juice will drain. As a pallet, you can use a stand from under big pot for flowers or kitchen sink from stainless steel.

The crusher for grapes can be a frame, the installation of a basket in this design is not provided. The grapes are placed in a fabric multi-layer bag between the bars and choked in this form.

The piston for the press is made of wood (preferably oak), you can take the remains of the rails. The main thing is to get a round part that will fit into the basket in diameter. The slats are folded together, a circle is cut out, and the parts are connected with self-tapping screws or wire.

The power mechanism is a jack or a screw. Under the jack you need to put a few planks during the spin cycle.

Filtration bag, Here you should pay attention to the structure of the fabric. Suitable kapron, lavsan, polyester, propylene, durable cotton or linen fabric. The main thing is that while squeezing the juice, the bag does not tear.

Principle of operation

A basket is inserted into the tank and a filter bag is placed. Berries are placed here, a piston and a jack are installed. The crane must be opened and a receiving container placed. Give carefully, sudden movements can damage the frame or fabric bag. You need to squeeze the juice, making several strokes with interruptions.