What does doctrine mean. Doctrine is a doctrine, theory, science
from lat. docere - teach, doctrina - teaching) - authoritative teaching; set of principles; a system of theoretical provisions about any field of phenomena; system of views of any scientist or thinker. The term "D." is of Christian origin and originally denoted such a religious doctrine, which is based on a sacred text, concerns the essence of church doctrine and is generally recognized. While retaining a predominantly Christian sound, the concept of D. also absorbed general religious and secular content.
For example, Christians talk about D. the fall of man, D. redemption by Jesus Christ through the crucifixion of original sin, or D. Resurrection. Although far from all Christians think these D. in the same way, nevertheless, the differences between their individual understandings of these authoritative provisions are not so great. D. is closely connected with explaining to the new converts the essence of their faith. Many of the great doctrinal works of Christianity take the form of a catechism ("teaching"), that is, they are written in the form of questions and answers, and the sum of the answers illuminates the basis of the teaching.
In common sense with the term "D." similar: the Jewish term "torah" ("instruction", "instruction"), the Islamic term "kalam" ("words"), the Hindu word "darsana" ("school"), the Buddhist word "dharma" ("teaching").
A doctrinaire is a person who firmly adheres to D., even if it does not agree well with life. In a mocking sense, this is a reader, a talmudist, a stubborn defender of outdated dogmas. Doctrine - the way of thinking and behavior characteristic of a doctrinaire; blind, uncritical adherence to any D. If a non-religious teaching is called D., then most often they mean the attitude of its supporters to this teaching as an indisputable truth.
The word "doctrine" comes from the Latin "doctrina" - "teaching, science, learning", it is used to refer to any concept, theory, principle that defines a problem and a way to solve it. The term can be used in science, philosophy, religion, politics, but most often we hear it in relation to law. Let's understand what a doctrine is, in a little more detail.
Doctrine: scientific and official
According to the traditional classification, doctrines are distinguished:
- official - created and regulated at the national and supranational levels;
- scientific - are formulated in universities or other professorial associations.
Initially, the doctrine was the only source of international law, but subsequently the meaning of the doctrine in law was rethought. Today, however, the doctrine is still used in international law, it is a subsidiary source of law and is applied only in special conditions.
Known Doctrines
One of the most famous doctrines is The Doctrine of Fascism, a book on fascism written by Benito Mussolini, who coined the term fascism. The book was published in 1932 and became a source of national inspiration for Italian youth. In the book, fascism acts as a new worldview, consisting in the struggle against everything old - communism, socialism, democracy, etc., the accomplishment of a spiritual and state revolution.
Another well-known doctrine is the "Doctrine of the European Union", which contains a set of ideas about the goals of European integration.
- DOCTRINE
ESTRADA - the doctrine of informal recognition of governments, put forward by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Mexico, X. Estrada, in a communiqué dated September 27, 1930 ... - DOCTRINE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
TOVARA - the international legal doctrine put forward in 1907 by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ecuador, K. Tobar, on the non-recognition of those who come to power after ... - DOCTRINE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
ACQUIRED RIGHTS - an international legal theory, according to which private property and the rights and interests of foreigners associated with it must ... - DOCTRINE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
MONROE - a message to the Congress of US President D. Monroe dated December 2, 1823 D.m. contained three main provisions that posed as ... - DOCTRINE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
INTERNATIONAL LAW in a broad sense - a system of views and concepts about the essence and purpose of international law in specific historical conditions, ... - DOCTRINE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
- a set of postulates that serve as the basis of the theory. Economic D. contributes to the explanation of the theory and the implementation of the analysis of economic mechanisms, reflects the need to choose ... - DOCTRINE in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(lat. doctrina) doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, system, guiding theoretical or political principle. See also Military… - DOCTRINE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(lat. doctrina), teaching, scientific or philosophical theory, politic system, a guiding theoretical or political principle (for example, military doctrine) or a normative ... - DOCTRINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
cm. … - DOCTRINE in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Latin doctrina), doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, system, guiding theoretical or political principle (for example, military ... - DOCTRINE
[Latin doctrina] teaching, scientific or philosophical theory, political system; Monroe Doctrine "America for Americans" foreign policy United States, installed in ... - DOCTRINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
s, w. Doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, guiding theoretical or political principle.||Cf. CONCEPT… - DOCTRINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, -s, w. (book). Teaching, scientific concept (usually about philosophical, political, ideological theory). * Military doctrine (special) - a system of official ... - DOCTRINE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
DOCTRINA (lat. doctrina), teaching, scientific. or philosophy. theory, system, guiding theoretical. or polit. principle. See also Military Doctrine... - DOCTRINE in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
? cm. … - DOCTRINE in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
doctrine "on, doctrine" us, doctrine "na, doctrine" n, doctrine "not, doctrine" us, doctrine "well, doctrine" us, doctrine "noah, doctrine" noah, doctrine "us, doctrine" not, ... - DOCTRINE in the Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary:
‘science’ Syn: teaching, … - DOCTRINE in the New Dictionary of Foreign Words:
(lat. doctrina) teaching, scientific or philosophical theory, political system, guiding theoretical or political ... - DOCTRINE in the Dictionary of Foreign Expressions:
[lat. doctrina] doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, political system, governing theoretical or political ... - DOCTRINE in the Russian Thesaurus:
‘science’ Syn: teaching, … - DOCTRINE in the Dictionary of synonyms of Abramov:
see science, ... - DOCTRINE in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language:
concept, madhyamika, neoplasticism, pan-americanism, construction, theodicy, theory, doctrine, … - DOCTRINE in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
and. The totality of officially accepted views on any problem and the nature of its means ...
2. Doctrine in Islamic law
3. Doctrine fascism
Philosophy of fascism
Anti-individualism and freedom
The power of the people and the nation
Political and social doctrine
4. Racial Doctrine
5. Military doctrine
Doctrine —this is scientific, philosophical, political, religious or legal theory, belief system, guiding theoretical or political principle.
Doctrine as a source of law
As a general rule, any doctrine is divided into official, created at the national or supranational level (expert opinions given above), and scientific, created at universities and other professorial associations.
Initially, the doctrine was the only source of international public law; it was expressed in the works of Hugo Grotius and other lawyers, who substantiate the existence of international law from the point of view of the natural law school. The development of positivism ultimately led to the decline of doctrine, and then to a rethinking of the role of doctrine in law. At present, in public international law, doctrine is a subsidiary source of law, the application of which is possible only in special circumstances.
International private law also recognizes doctrine as a source of law.
In national law, the role of doctrine depends on the characteristics of the legal system and national culture. AT Russian Federation the doctrine is not officially recognized as a source of Russian law, but in fact it is.
In the scientific literature, completely opposite points of view are often expressed regarding the recognition of the legal doctrine as a source of law, and there is a consensus on this issue in Russian science no.
Currently, references to the works of prominent lawyers are found in court decisions, but rather as an additional argument. The role of legal doctrine is manifested in the creation of structures, concepts, definitions used by the law-making body. Judges of higher or international courts, expressing their dissenting opinion, often refer to the works of famous jurists. And lawyers are invited to court sessions to give expert opinions.
In particular, the case of the UN International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea “On the Volga Fishing Vessel” ( the Russian Federation v. Australia). 2002. In the dissenting opinion of Vice President Budislav Vukas, one can find references to the works of prominent theorists of international law: René-Jean Dupuy, Arvid Pardo.
The doctrine of the European Union is a conditional concept, which is a set of theoretical ideas about the goals, principles and legal forms of European integration. Traditionally, “... in states, the doctrine is made up of professional ideas of recognized authorities in the field of national law and, as a rule, is formed over many decades, then in the process of forming the European legal system, the function of the doctrine today is performed by expert opinions of leading European experts invited to the commissions euro union, in order to analyze the current legislation and prepare recommendations for determining the principles and content of new acts European Union».
Doctrine in Islamic law
The special significance of the doctrine for the development of Islamic law is explained not only by the presence of many gaps, but also by the inconsistency of the Koran and the Sunnah. Most of the norms contained in them are of divine origin, which means they are considered eternal and unchanging. Therefore, they cannot be simply discarded and replaced by regulatory legal acts (NLA) states. Under these conditions, Muslim jurists, relying on fundamental sources, interpret them and form a solution to be applied in the current situation.
If in the VII-VIII centuries. Indeed, the sources of Muslim law were the Koran and the Sunnah, as well as ijma and "sayings of the companions", then, starting from the 9th-10th centuries, this role gradually passed to the doctrine. In essence, the cessation of ijtihad meant the canonization of the conclusions of the main schools of Muslim law that had developed by the middle of the 11th century.
The doctrinal development of Islamic law, while making it difficult to systematize, at the same time gave it a certain flexibility and the possibility of development. Modern Muslim legal doctrine as a source of law should be considered in several aspects. In a number countries(, Oman, some principalities of the Persian Gulf) it continues to play the role of a formal source of law, in others (Egypt, Morocco) the subsidiary use of Muslim law is allowed in the presence of gaps in state regulatory legal acts.
Doctrine of fascism
The Doctrine of Fascism (Italian: La dottrina del fascismo) is the seminal book on fascism written by the term's creator, Benito Mussolini.
It was first published in 1932 in the 14th volume of the Italian encyclopedia Enciclopedia Italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti as an introduction to the article "Fascismo" (Fascism). In the same year, the article was published as a separate book on 16 pages in the series "fascism" ("L'ideologija fascista"). Mussolini wrote extended notes for the first chapter for the book.
The greatest phenomenon in the life of the peoples of the post-war period is fascism, which is currently making its victorious path throughout the world, conquering the minds of the active forces of mankind and prompting a revision and restructuring of the entire social order.
Fascism originated in Italy and its creator is the brilliant leader of the fascist political party and Prime Minister Benito Mussolini.
In the struggle of the Italian people against the nightmare of red communism approaching the country, fascism gave the Italian youth, the foremost fighter for national revival, the ideological basis for this struggle.
The communist ideology was opposed by a new ideology national state, national solidarity, national pathos.
Thanks to this, fascism created a powerful company of an active minority, which, in the name of the national ideal, entered into a decisive war with the whole old world of communism, socialism, liberalism, power of the people and with her selfless feat made a spiritual and state revolution that transformed the modern Italy and announced the beginning of the Italian fascist statehood.
Having made a campaign against Rome in October 1922, fascism seized state power and set about re-educating the people and companies states, in the order of the fundamental laws that finally fixed the form of the fascist state.
In the course of this struggle, the doctrine of fascism was also developed. In the charter of the fascist political party, in the resolutions of party and trade union congresses, in the resolutions of the Great Fascist Council, in the speeches and articles of Benito Mussolini, the main provisions of fascism were gradually formulated.
In 1932, Mussolini considered it timely to give his doctrine a complete formulation, which he did in his work "the doctrine of fascism", placed in the 14th volume of the Italian encyclopedia. For a separate edition of this work he added notes to it.
It is very important for the Russian reader to get acquainted with this work by B. Mussolini. Fascism is a new worldview, a new philosophy, a new corporate economy, a new state doctrine.
Thus, answering all the questions of human society, fascism went beyond the national Italy. It developed and formulated general provisions that determined the emerging social order of the 20th century, why they acquired universal significance. In other words, the ideological content of fascism has become common property.
Every nation has its own nationalism and creates its own forms of existence; no imitation of even the best examples is unacceptable. But the basic ideas of Italian fascism fertilize nation-building throughout the world.
At present, the ideas of fascism are very widespread among the Russian emigration.
Careful study of fascism began around 1924, when an attempt was made in Serbia firms Russian fascist political party. This movement was led by Prof. D. P. Ruzsky and Gen. P. V. Chersky.
In 1927, this so-called "National Russian Fascist" published its program, which, based on the general provisions of Italian fascism, but in accordance with Russian conditions, outlined the path of the revolutionary struggle against Bolshevism and the future course of the restoration of the liberated from communism Russian Federation.
However, this movement did not receive organizational development.
But the ideas of fascism were transferred to the Far East, where the Russian emigration managed to use them, creating in 1931 the Russian Fascist Party, headed by a young and talented man V. K. Rodzaevsky.
Until now, R.F.P. developed a great organizational and propaganda work, publishing the daily newspaper "Our Way" and the monthly magazine "Nation".
At the 3rd Congress in 1935, a new party program was adopted, which is an attempt to adapt the principles of universal fascism to Russian reality in matters of the future structure of the Russian state.
It should be noted, however, that ideology Russian fascism in the Far East is strongly influenced by German National Socialism and has lately veered towards the old Russian nationalism.
But even in Europe, Russian fascist thought continues to develop, and its representative is the magazine Klich, published in Belgium.
The editors of the Klich magazine joined the program of the national company of Russian fascists and preaches fascist ideology as the only real counterweight to communism, while recognizing in the Italian statehood created by the genius of B. Mussolini, a real solution to the crisis experienced by modern society.
In the development of the 1927 program, Klich published a pamphlet by its colleague Verist (a pseudonym): "The Basic Principles of Russian Fascism." In it, the author, under the slogan of Russian fascism "God, Nation and Labor", establishes the general provisions of Russian fascism, which is the doctrine of the national revival of the Russian Federation on the basis of a new national statehood, formulated and approved on the experience of the Italian Empire, the creator of the fascist doctrine and the leader of Italian fascism B. Mussolini.
Philosophy of fascism
Like any integral political concept, fascism is both action and thought: an action that has a doctrine, and a doctrine that, having arisen on the basis of a given system of historical forces, is included in the latter and then acts as an internal force.
Therefore, this concept has a form corresponding to the circumstances of place and time, but at the same time it has an ideological content that elevates it to the meaning of truth in the history of higher thought.
It is impossible to act spiritually on the external world in the field of the dictates of the human will, without understanding the transient and partial reality that is subject to influence, and the eternal and universal reality, in which the first has its being and life.
To know people you need to know a person, and to know a person you need to know reality and its laws. There is no concept of the state, which, at its core, would not be the concept of life. It is philosophy or intuition, an idea system that develops into a logical construction or is expressed in vision or in faith, but it is always, at least in the possibility, an organic doctrine of the world.
Spiritual concept of life
Thus, fascism cannot be understood in many of its practical manifestations, as a party firm, as an educational system, as a discipline, unless it is considered in the light of a general understanding of life, that is, an understanding of the spiritual.
The world for fascism is not only a material world, manifesting itself only externally, in which a person, who is an independent individual, separate from all others, is guided by natural law, instinctively attracting him to egoistic life and momentary pleasure.
For fascism, a person is an individual, one with the nation, the Fatherland, obeying the moral law that binds individuals through tradition, historical mission, and paralyzes the life instinct, limited by the circle of fleeting pleasure, in order to create a higher life, free from the boundaries of time and space, in the consciousness of duty. In this life, the individual, through self-negation, sacrifice by private interests, even by the feat of death, realizes a purely spiritual being, which is his human value.
Positive concept of life as struggle
So, fascism is a spiritual concept that also emerged from the general reaction of the century against the weakening materialistic positivism of the 19th century. The concept is anti-positivist, but positive; not skeptical, not agnostic, not pessimistic, not passively optimistic, which are generally the doctrines (all negative) that place the center of life outside of man, who can and must create his own world with his free will.
Fascism desires a man who is active, who devotes himself to action with all his energy, who is courageously aware of the difficulties ahead of him and is ready to overcome them. He understands life as a struggle, remembering that a person should win a decent life for himself, creating, first of all, from himself an instrument (physical, moral, intellectual) for its arrangement. This is true for the individual as well as for the nation and for mankind in general.
Hence the high appreciation of culture in all its forms (art, religion, science) and the great importance of education. Hence the main value of labor, by which a person conquers nature and creates his own world (economic, political, moral, intellectual)
The moral concept of life
This positive understanding of life is obviously an ethical understanding. It encompasses all of reality, not just the person who rules over it. There is no action that is not subject to moral judgment; there is nothing in the world that could be deprived of its moral value.
Therefore, the fascist imagines life as serious, severe, religious, fully included in the world of moral and spiritual forces. The fascist despises the "comfortable life"
Religious concept of life
Fascism is a religious concept; in it, a person is considered in his immanent relation to the highest law, to the objective Will, which exceeds the individual, makes him a conscious participant in spiritual communication. Whoever dwells on purely opportunistic considerations in the religious policy of the fascist regime fails to understand that fascism, being a system of government, is also and above all a system of thought.
Ethical and realistic concept of life
Fascism is a historical concept in which a person is considered exclusively as an active participant in the spiritual process in the family and social group, in the nation and in history, where all nations cooperate. Hence the great importance of tradition in memories, language, customs, rules of social life.
Man is nothing outside of history. Therefore, fascism opposes all individualistic abstractions on a materialistic basis of the 19th century; he is against all utopias and Jacobin innovations. He does not believe in the possibility of "happiness" on earth, as was the aspiration of the economic literature of the 18th century, and therefore he rejects all teleological teachings, according to which, in a certain period history, the final dispensation of the human race is possible. The latter is tantamount to delivering oneself outside of history and life, which is a continuous flow and development.
Politically, fascism aspires to be a realistic doctrine; in practice, he wants to solve only the tasks that history itself sets, outlining or predicting their solution. To act among people, as in nature, one must penetrate into the real process and master the active forces.
Anti-individualism and freedom
The fascist concept of the state is anti-individualist; fascism recognizes the individual insofar as he coincides with the state, representing the universal consciousness and will of man in his historical existence.
Fascism is opposed to classical liberalism, which arose out of the need to react against absolutism and exhausted its task when it turned into popular consciousness and will. denied the state in the interests of the individual; fascism affirms the state as the true reality of the individual.
If freedom should be an essential property real person, and not an abstract puppet, as the individualistic liberalism then fascism for freedom. He is for the only freedom that can be a serious fact, namely the freedom of the state and the freedom of the individual in the state. And this is because for a fascist everything is in the state and nothing human or spiritual exists, much less has no value outside the state. In this sense, fascism is totalitarian and the fascist state, as the synthesis and unity of all values, interprets and develops the entire life of the people, and also enhances its rhythm.
Anti-socialism and corporatism
Outside the state there is no individual, and there are no groups (parties, societies, trade unions, classes). Therefore, fascism is against socialism which reduces historical development to the struggle of classes and does not recognize state unity, which merges classes into a single economic and moral reality; likewise fascism against class syndicalism.
But within the ruling state, fascism recognizes the real demands from which the socialist and trade union movements spring, and realizes them in a corporate system of interests agreed upon in the unity of the state.
People power and nation
Individuals make up: classes according to categories of interests; trade unions according to various spheres of economic activity united by a common interest; but first and foremost they constitute the state. The latter is not a number in the form of a sum of individuals who form the majority of the people. Therefore, fascism is against popular rule, equating the people to the majority, and reducing them to the level of the many.
But he himself is a real form of people's power, if the people are understood as it should, qualitatively, and not quantitatively, that is, as the most powerful, moral, true and consistent idea. This idea is realized in the people through the consciousness and will of a few, even one, and, as an ideal, it strives to be realized in the consciousness and will of all.
It is precisely those who, in accordance with ethnic nature and history, form a nation, being directed unified consciousness and will along one line of development and spiritual stock.
A nation is not a race, or a definite geographic locality, but a group lasting in history, that is, a multitude united by one idea, which is the will to exist and dominate, i.e., self-consciousness, and therefore a person.
The concept of the state
This higher personality is the nation in so far as it is the state. It is not the nation that creates the state, as proclaimed by the old naturalistic understanding that formed the basis of the nation-states of the 19th century. On the contrary, the state creates the nation by giving freedom and, consequently, an effective existence to the people, who are aware of their own moral unity.
The right of a nation to independence stems not from a literary and ideological consciousness of its own existence, much less from an actual more or less unconscious and inactive state, but from an active consciousness, from an active political will capable of proving its right, i.e. from a kind of state already in the initial stage (in progress). , precisely as a universal ethical will, is the creator of law.
ethical state
The nation, in the form of the state, is an ethical reality that exists and lives as it develops. A stop in development is death. Therefore, the state is not only ruling, giving form to individual wills. law and creating the value of spiritual life, it is also a force that carries out its will outside and forces it to be recognized and respected, that is, it actually proves its universality in all the necessary manifestations of its development. Hence, expansion, at least in the possibility. Thus, the state will is equated by nature with the human will, which knows no limits in its development and proves its own infinity by its implementation.
The fascist state, the highest and most powerful form of personality, is a force, but a spiritual force. It synthesizes all forms of the moral and intellectual life of man. Therefore, the state cannot be limited to the tasks of order and protection, as it wanted liberalism. It is not a simple mechanism that delimits the spheres of alleged individual freedoms.
The state is an internal form and norm that disciplines the whole person and embraces both his will and his mind. Its main principle is the main inspiration of the human personality living in civil society, penetrating into the depths, taking root in the heart of an acting person, whether he is a thinker, artist or scientist: this is the soul of the soul.
As a result, fascism is not only a legislator and creator of institutions, but an educator and engine of spiritual life. He seeks to remake not the form of human life, but its content, the person himself, character, faith.
For this purpose, he strives for discipline and authority, penetrating the spirit of man and indisputably ruling in him. Therefore, its emblem is the lictor bundle, a symbol of unity, strength and justice.
Political and social doctrine
Reformism, revolutionism, centrism—not a trace remains of all this terminology, while in the mighty tide of fascism you will find streams originating from Sorel, Peguy, Lagardel of the Mouvement Socialiste, and from which the Italian syndicalist cohorts, which between 1904 and in 1914 with Pagani Libere - Olivetti, La Lupa - Orano, Divenire Sociale - Heinrich Leone brought a new note to the everyday life of Italian socialism, already relaxed and chloroformed by Giollitti's fornication.
At the end wars in 1919, as a doctrine, was dead; he existed only in the form of hatred and had another opportunity, especially in Italy, to take revenge on those who wanted to wars and who is to redeem it.
The years leading up to the march on Rome were years when the necessity of action did not permit study and detailed doctrinal development. There were battles in towns and villages. They argued, but, what is more holy and significant, they died. They knew how to die. A doctrine worked out with subdivision into chapters and paragraphs and with careful substantiation might be missing; there was something more definite to replace it: faith...
However, whoever reconstructs the past from a mass of books, articles, ordinances of congresses, large and small speeches, who knows how to research and choose, will find that in the heat of the struggle the foundations of the doctrine have been sketched out. It was during these years that fascist thought was armed, sharpened and formed.
The problems of the individual and the state were resolved; problems of authority and freedom; political, social and especially national problems; the struggle against liberal, democratic, social, masonic, folk-catholic (popolari) doctrines was carried out simultaneously with the "punitive expeditions".
But since there was no "system", the opponents unscrupulously denied any doctrinal ability of fascism, and meanwhile, the doctrine was created, perhaps, violently, at first under the guise of violent and dogmatic denial, as happens with all emerging ideas, and then in form of a positive construction, which was embodied successively in 1926, 1927 and 1928 in laws and institutions of the regime.
Today, fascism is distinctly isolated not only as a regime, but also as a doctrine. This proposition must be interpreted in the sense that fascism today, while criticizing itself and others, has its own independent point of view, and consequently a line of direction, in all the problems that torment the peoples of the world materially or spiritually.
Against pacifism: and life as duty
First of all, fascism does not believe in the possibility and benefit of a permanent peace, since in general the matter concerns the future development of mankind, and considerations of the current politicians. Therefore, he rejects pacifism, which covers the refusal to fight and the fear of the victim.
Only war strains all human forces to the highest degree and imposes the seal of nobility on the peoples that have the courage to undertake such. All other trials are secondary, since they do not put a person in front of himself in the choice of life or death. Therefore, a doctrine based on the premise of peace is alien to fascism
Also alien to the spirit of fascism are all international firms of a public nature, although they can be accepted for the sake of profit under certain political conditions. As history shows, such campaigns can be scattered to the wind when ideological and practical feelings stir up the hearts of peoples.
Fascism carries this anti-pacifist spirit into the lives of individuals. The proud word of the combatant “I am not intimidated” (me ne frego), inscribed on the bandage of the wound, is not only an act of Stoic philosophy, not only a conclusion from political doctrine; it is education for struggle, acceptance of the risk associated with it; this is the new style of italian life
Thus the fascist accepts and loves life; he denies and considers suicide cowardice; he understands life duty improvement, conquest. Life should be sublime and fulfilling, experienced for oneself, but most importantly for others, near and far, present and future.
The demographic policy of the regime is a conclusion from these premises.
The Fascist loves his neighbor, but this "neighbor" is not for him a vague and elusive idea; love for one's neighbor does not eliminate the necessary educative severity, and even more so legibility and restraint in relationships.
The fascist rejects the embrace of the world and, living in communion with civilized peoples, he does not allow himself to be deceived by a changeable and deceptive appearance; vigilant and distrustful, he looks them in the eyes and watches the state of their spirit and the change of their interests.
Against historical materialism and civil war
Such an understanding of life leads fascism to a resolute rejection of the doctrine that forms the basis of Marx's so-called scientific socialism; the doctrine of historical materialism, according to which the history of human civilization is explained solely by the struggle of the interests of various social groups and changes in the means and instruments of production.
No one denies that economic factors - the discovery of raw materials, new methods work, scientific inventions - have their value, but it is absurd to assume that they are enough to explain human history without taking into account other factors.
Now and always, fascism believes in holiness and heroism, that is, in actions in which there is no any - distant or close - economic motive.
Having rejected historical materialism, according to which people are presented only as extras of history, appearing and hiding on the surface of life, while guiding forces move and work inside, fascism denies the constant and inevitable civil war, a natural product of such an economic understanding of history, and above all he denies that Civil War is the dominant element of social change.
After the collapse of these two pillars of doctrine, nothing remains of socialism but sensitive dreams, as old as mankind, of a social existence in which the suffering and sorrows of the common people will be alleviated. But here, too, fascism rejects the concept of economic "happiness" realized in this moment economic evolution socialistically, as if automatically providing everyone with the highest measure of well-being. Fascism denies the possibility of a materialistic understanding of “happiness” and leaves it to the economists of the first half of the 18th century, i.e. it denies the equality: - “well-being-happiness”, which would turn people into cattle thinking about one thing: to be satisfied and satiated, i.e. e. limited to simple and purely vegetative life.
After socialism, fascism fights against the whole complex of democratic ideologies, rejecting them either in their theoretical premises or in their practical applications and constructions.
Fascism denies that number, simply as such, can govern human society; he denies that this number, through periodic consultations, can rule; he maintains that inequality is inevitable, beneficial and beneficial to people who cannot be equalized by the mechanical and external fact that is the popular vote.
One can define democratic regimes by the fact that under them, from time to time, the people are given the illusion of their own sovereignty, while the real, real one rests on other forces, often irresponsible and secret. of the people is a regime without a king, but with very numerous, often more absolute, tyrannical and ruinous kings than a single king, even if he is a tyrant.
That is why fascism, which until 1922, in view of transient considerations, occupied a republican, in a tendency, position, before the Campaign on Rome abandoned it in the conviction that today the question of the political form of the state is not essential and that when studying the models of former and present monarchies or republics, it is clear that the monarchy and the republic should not be discussed under the sign of eternity, but are forms in which the political evolution, history, tradition and psychology of a particular country are revealed.
Now fascism has overcome the "monarchy-republic" opposition, in which democracy is stuck, burdening the former with all the shortcomings and praising the latter as a perfect system. It is now clear that there are essentially reactionary and absolute republics and monarchies that accept the most daring political and social experiments.
In relation to liberal doctrines, fascism is in unconditional opposition, both in the field politicians, as well as the economy. For the purposes of the current controversy, one should not exaggerate the importance of liberalism in the last century and make one of the many doctrines that flourished in that century the religion of mankind for all times, present and future.
Liberalism only flourished for 15 years. It was born in 1830 as a reaction against the Holy Alliance, which wanted to push back Europe to the 1789s, and had its year of special brilliance, namely 1848, when even Pope Pius IX was a liberal.
Immediately after this, the decline began. If 1848 was a year of light and poetry, then 1849 was a year of darkness and tragedy. The Roman Republic was killed by another, namely the French Republic. In the same year, Marx published the gospel of the socialist religion in the form of the famous communist manifesto. In 1851, Napoleon III staged an illiberal coup d'état and reigned over France until 1870, when he was overthrown by a popular uprising, but in what is considered one of the largest military defeats in history. Bismarck won, never knowing where the religion of freedom reigns, and what prophets serve it.
It is symptomatic that the German people, a people of the highest culture, during the 19th century did not know the religion of freedom at all. It appeared only in the transition period, in the form of the so-called "ridiculous parliament" in Frankfurt, which lasted one season.
The Republic of Germany has achieved its national unity outside of liberalism, against liberalism, a doctrine alien to the German soul, the exclusively monarchical soul, while there is a logical and historical threshold for anarchy. The stages of German unification are the three wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870, led by such liberals as Moltke and Bismarck.
As far as Italian unification is concerned, liberalism contributed an absolutely smaller share to it than did Mazzini and Garibaldi, who were not liberals. Without the intervention of the illiberal Napoleon, we would not have Lombardy; and without the help of the illiberal Bismarck at Sadovaya and Sedan, it is quite possible that we would not have had Venice in 1866 and would not have entered Rome in 1870.
From 1870 to 1915 comes the time when the priests of the new confession themselves recognize the onset of the twilight of their religion - beaten in literature by decadence, in practice by activism; i.e. nationalism, futurism, fascism.
Having accumulated an infinite number of Gordian knots, the liberal age is trying to extricate itself through the hecatomb of the world war. Never has any religion imposed such an enormous sacrifice. Are the gods of liberalism out for blood? Now liberalism is closing its empty temples, because the peoples feel that its agnosticism in economics, its indifference in politics and morality are leading the state to certain death, as it was before.
This explains why all political experiments modern world- anti-liberal, and therefore extremely ridiculous to exclude them from the course of history. As if history were a hunting ground reserved for liberalism and its professors, and liberalism is the ultimate indisputable word. civilization.
The fascist denial of socialism, democracy, liberalism, however, does not give the right to think that fascism wants to push the world back to the time before 1789, which is considered the beginning of the demo-liberal age.
No return to the past! Fascist doctrine did not choose de Mestre as its prophet. Monarchist absolutism has outlived its usefulness, and also, perhaps, every theocracy. Thus, feudal privileges and the division into "closed" castes that do not communicate with each other have outlived their time. Fascist concept of authorities has nothing to do with a police state. A party ruling a totalitarian nation is a new fact in history. Any ratios and comparisons are impossible.
From the ruins of liberal, socialist and democratic doctrines, fascism extracts still valuable and vital elements. He retains the so-called conquests of history and rejects everything else, that is, the concept of a doctrine suitable for all times and peoples. Let us assume that the 19th century was the century of socialism, democracy and liberalism; however, this does not mean that the 20th century will also be the century of socialism, popular rule and liberalism. Political doctrines pass, peoples remain. It can be assumed that this century will be the century of authority, the century of the "right" direction, the fascist century. If the 19th century was the century of the individual (liberalism is the same as individualism), then it can be assumed that this century will be the century of the "collective", hence the century of the state.
It is perfectly logical that a new doctrine may still use the vital elements of other doctrines. No doctrine is born wholly new, never seen or unheard of. No doctrine can boast of absolute originality. Each, at least historically, is connected with other past and future doctrines. Thus, the scientific socialism of Marx is connected with the utopian socialism of Fourier, Owen, Saint-Simon. So the liberalism of the 19th century is related to the Illuminism of the 18th century. This is how democratic doctrines are connected with the Encyclopedia.
Every doctrine seeks to direct the activities of people towards a certain goal, but human activity, in turn, affects the doctrine, changes it, adapts it to new needs or overcomes it. Therefore, the doctrine itself should not be an exercise in words, but an act of life. This is the pragmatic coloring of fascism, its will to power, the desire for being, its attitude to the fact of "violence" and the meaning of the latter.
The value and mission of the state
The main position of the fascist doctrine is the doctrine of the state, its essence, tasks and goals. For fascism, the state appears as an absolute, in comparison with which individuals and groups are only "relative". Individuals and groups are "thinkable" only in the state. The liberal state does not control the game and the material and spiritual development of the team, but limits itself to taking into account the results.
The unity of the state and the contradictions of capitalism
From 1929 to the present day, the general economic and political evolution has further strengthened the significance of these doctrinal principles. The state becomes a giant. Only the state is able to resolve dramatic contradictions capitalism. The so-called can only be permitted by the state and within the state.
Before the incessantly demanded inevitable intervention of the state in economic relations, what would the Englishman Bentham now say, in whose opinion the state should ask for one thing: leave it alone; or the German Humboldt, according to whom an "idle" state should be considered the best?
It is true that the second wave of liberal economists was not as extreme as the first, and he himself - albeit very carefully - opened the door for state intervention in the economy.
Whoever says liberalism says "individual"; whoever says "fascism" says "state". But the fascist state is unique and appears to be an original creation. It is not reactionary, but revolutionary, because it anticipates the solution of certain universal problems posed in all areas: in the political sphere by the fragmentation of parties, the arbitrariness of parliament, the irresponsibility of legislative assemblies; in economic sphere- the ever more extensive and powerful trade union activity, both in the working sector and in the industrial sector, their conflicts and agreements; - in the moral field - the need for order, discipline, obedience to the moral commandments of the fatherland.
Fascism wants a strong, organic and at the same time based on a broad popular base of the state. The fascist state also demanded the economy as its competence, therefore the feeling of statehood, through the corporate, social and educational institutions created by it, penetrated to the extreme ramifications, and in the state all the political, economic and spiritual forces of the nation are revealed, being introduced into the corresponding firms. A state based on millions of individuals who recognize it, feel it, are ready to serve it, cannot be the tyrannical state of a medieval ruler. It has nothing to do with absolute states before or after 1789.
In a fascist state, the individual is not destroyed, but rather strengthened in his significance, just as a soldier in the ranks is not diminished, but strengthened by the number of his comrades. The fascist state organizes the nation, but leaves sufficient space for the individuals; it curtailed useless and harmful freedoms and preserved essential ones. It is not the individual who can judge in this area, but only the state.
Fascist state and religion
The fascist state does not remain indifferent to the religious phenomenon in general and to positive religion, in particular, which in Italy is Catholicism. The state does not have its own theology, but it has a morality. In a fascist state, religion is regarded as one of the deepest manifestations of the spirit, therefore it is not only revered, but also protected and patronized.
The fascist state did not create its "God", as Robespierre did at the moment of the extreme delirium of the Convention; it does not strive in vain, like Bolshevism, to eradicate religion from the souls of the people. Fascism honors the God of ascetics, saints, heroes, and also God, as the naive and primitive heart of the people contemplates and calls to Him.
Empire and discipline
The fascist state is the will to authorities and dominance. The Roman tradition in this respect is the idea of power. In fascist doctrine, the empire is not only a territorial, military, or commercial institution, but also a spiritual and moral one. One can think of an empire, i.e., a nation ruling directly or indirectly over other nations, without the need to conquer even one kilometer of territory.
For fascism, the desire for empire, that is, for national expansion, is a vital manifestation; the opposite, "staying at home", there are signs of decline. The peoples that are rising and resurrecting are imperialists; dying nations renounce all claims.
Fascism is the doctrine best suited to express the aspirations and state of mind of the Italian people, rising up after many centuries of abandonment and foreign slavery. But dominion requires discipline, coordination of forces, a sense of duty and sacrifice; this explains many manifestations practical activities building, the orientation of state efforts, the necessary severity against those who would like to counteract this fatal movement of Italy in the 20th century; To counteract by shaking the overcome ideologies of the 19th century, rejected wherever grandiose experiments of political and social change are boldly accomplished.
Never, like the present moment, have peoples hungered so much for authority, orientation, order. If each age has its own doctrine of life, then from a thousand signs it is clear that the doctrine of the present age is fascism. That it is a living doctrine is evident from the fact that it excites faith; that this faith embraces souls is proved by the fact that fascism had its heroes, its martyrs. Henceforth fascism possesses the universality of those doctrines which, in their implementation, represent a stage in the history of the human spirit.
Racial doctrine
An integral part of the Nazi worldview, which played a key role in the history of the Third Reich. It received theoretical justification in the middle of the 19th century in the wake of growing nationalism and the accompanying romanticism, when German racism acquired political and cultural significance. Not satisfied with claims of white superiority over colored races, racial doctrinalists created a hierarchy within the white race itself. Faced with this necessity, they created the myth of Aryan superiority. This, in turn, became the source for subsequent myths such as Teutonic, Anglo-Saxon and Celtic. The first step was the mixing of the Indo-European group of languages with the so-called Indo-European race.
The concept of "Indo-European" was soon supplanted by the concept of "Indo-German". And then, with light hand Friedrich Max Muller, has become "Aryan" - to indicate belonging to a language group. Müller rejected the identification of race and language, however, the damage had already been done. From these positions, the racists insisted that "Aryan" meant the nobility of blood, the matchless beauty of form and mind, and the superiority of the breed. Every significant achievement in history, they argued, was made by members of the Aryan race. All, in their opinion, was the result of a struggle between Aryan creators and non-Aryan destroyers.
Racism in Republic of Germany relied on fertilized soil, because it was identified with nationalism. The German romantics of the early 19th century, emphasizing uncertainty, mystery, emotionality and imagery as the opposite of rationality, had a profound impact on the German intelligentsia. Herder, Fichte, and other German Romantics sharply disagreed with the philosophers of the Enlightenment, who regarded reason as a fulcrum. The Germans believed that each people had its own specific genius (spirit), which, although deeply imprinted in the past, must ultimately express itself in the national spirit (Volksgeist). The Volksgeist was implied to be an undeniable superpower and possess a spiritual universe of its own, whose outer form manifested itself in a specific national culture.
This type of irrationalism, which took a strong place in the German mind, gave importance to such vague concepts as the doctrine of origins. Two non-German ideologues have made significant contributions to this thinking: the Frenchman Arthur de Gobineau and the Englishman Houston Stuart Chamberlain. A certain influence in the spread of this kind of racism was the German composer Richard Wagner, who believed that the heroic Germanic spirit was brought along with Nordic blood. The German racists maintained that the Nordic race was the best Aryan race. It followed from this that lower cultures could not dominate the biologically fixed combination of the Nordic mind, spirit and body.
Adolf Hitler, who idolized Wagner, made racial doctrine the cultural backbone of the Third Reich. In the pages of Mein Kampf, he vehemently denounced all those who held a different opinion on racial issues, calling them "liars and traitors." civilization". History, he declared, convincingly proved that whenever Aryan blood was mixed with the blood of lower peoples, the end of the "cultural bearer" race came to an end. The Germans should not fall into the sin of incest, warned Hitler. He spoke with fervor about the future of the German order, which seemed to him the brotherhood of the Templars around the Holy Grail of the purest blood. It is necessary to avoid the degeneration of the German race. And the main task of the state is to preserve the original racial elements. The Nordic Aryans, Hitler argued, became the creators and preservers of civilization, and the Jews - its destroyers. Therefore, the Germans are obliged rally against the Jews.
Hitler's racial notions were embodied in the Nuremberg Citizenship and Race Laws of 1935, which granted "all bearers of Germanic or similar blood" and denied it to anyone who was considered a member of the Jewish race. Thanks to these laws, which now seem very vague, racism was given legal justification in the Third Reich and eventually embodied in the "final solution" - the physical destruction of the Jewish population of Europe. Supported by Hitler Federal Republic of Germany Rassenforschung, a racial research program, became widespread. The results of the "works" of Nazi scientists became mandatory for study in all educational institutions of the Third Reich, from elementary grades to universities. Little importance was attached to the fact that the "scientific works" of German scientists at the world anthropological congresses aroused the laughter of their foreign colleagues.
In such an atmosphere, Nazi racism turned out to be a concept of racial purity. It has been argued that the decay of any nation is always the result of racial mixing: the fate of a nation depends on its ability to maintain its racial purity. Such notions, which were vehemently and vigorously defended, had no scientific justification. The peoples of the world turned out to be so mixed that it was hardly possible to find a pure race anywhere. Leading ethnologists and anthropologists of the world, without any reservations, agreed that the historical contact of races resulted in a complex interweaving in which it is impossible to single out a pure race. The majority of scientists were of the opinion that the world community is an ethnological crucible filled with energetic unclean-blooded subjects. They considered every cultural group that could be characterized as mixed as a virtual refutation of the thesis that mixed peoples are inferior to purebred peoples. Jean Fino expressed it in one phrase: "The purity of blood is nothing but a myth."
Equally unacceptable from a scientific point of view is the Nazi notion of racial superiority. The idea of a master race is as old as the world, but until the 19th century it was based on cultural rather than racial differences. Modern ideas about racial superiority stem from psychological prerequisites: fear and contempt for the homeless. This feeling is based on the instinct of self-preservation. Individuals and nations, like animals, tend to see any stranger as a natural enemy. This becomes an important prerequisite for the development of a sense of racial superiority.
Competent biologists, ethnologists, anthropologists agree that an arbitrary interpretation of the term "race" leads to confusion. A clear example is the use of this concept to satisfy Hitler's national ambitions. Indeed, there never was a Germanic race, but there was a Germanic nation. There was no Aryan race, but there were Aryan languages. There was no Jewish race, but there was and is a Jewish religion and culture. The tendency to explain the concept of "race" from biological positions does not stand up to scrutiny. The concept of "race" expresses the integrity physical type representing the essence of biological education and has nothing to do with nationality, language or customs historical development social groups. In the biological aspect, a race is a group of related individuals, a population that differs from other populations in related similarity by certain hereditary traits, of which skin color is only one of the characteristics. Politically, this interpretation takes the form of deliberate fraud.
Even in its original sense, the concept of "race" still retains subtle nuances to comprehend. Scientists have repeatedly tried to classify the peoples of the world in a certain order, but there have always been difficulties with this, for the reason that there is simply no clear line between races. Any such classifications are subjective and controversial.
The first attempts to classify races on the basis of simple biological differences looked unconvincing. The geographical classification was equally unsatisfactory (when considering the population of a given region and studying the general characteristic features), as well as on a historical (study of migration flows) or cultural principle ("racial mentality"). Examples of the above approach are characteristic of Carl Gustaf Carus, who singled out four races: European, African, Mongoloid and American, figuratively formulating them as "day, night, eastern dawn and western dawn". A similar approach is characteristic of Gustav Friedrich Klemm, who proposed a division into active (male) and passive (female) races, which was later borrowed and developed by Gobineau. Anthropological discoveries of the 19th century brought quantitative methods of racial recognition. The first step was the introduction in 1842 of the so-called. cranial index, a percentage of the length and width of the skull, proposed by the Swedish anatomist Anders Adolf Retjius. Further attempts at classification were limited to the study of somatic differences in the color of the skin, hair, figure, eyes, nose and face. The most expressive classification was the division into five primary colors: white, black, brown, red and yellow.
Such a division of humanity looked quite acceptable, but even here the variations within separate group seemed extremely difficult to establish a clear and distinct differentiation.
Anatomical, linguistic, mental and cultural features were so deeply intertwined that it was difficult to make any meaningful distinction between races.
Even somatic characteristics could be caused by environmental influences directly through nutritional deficiencies, natural or artificial selection, living conditions, or other circumstances. Undoubtedly, not only somatic features were insufficient to determine the dividing line between races. None of these theories fully influenced Hitler. So strong was the Fuhrer's belief in his own intuition on this issue that it baffled Nazi scientists when he ordered a study of scientific and historical facts in order to give a rationalistic explanation of his own position. He dismissed as irrelevant the facts that undermined Nazi racial doctrine in the bud. In the very nature of modern dictatorships there is a tendency that its leaders, in addition to claiming political power, tend to set the tone for cultural coordination. In the Third Reich, an entire nation was forced to accept the intuition of a poorly educated politician whose ideas about racial issues looked like a theater of the absurd, as an absolute.
military doctrine
Military doctrine, a system of official views and provisions that establishes the direction of military development, the preparation of the country and the armed forces for war, the methods and forms of its conduct. Military doctrine is developed and determined by the political leadership of the state. Fundamental provisions Military doctrine takes shape and changes depending on politics and the social system, the level of development of the productive forces, new scientific achievements, and the nature of the expected war.
The foundations of the military doctrine of the young Soviet state were developed under the guidance of VI Lenin. Big contribution M. V. Frunze contributed to the development of the Military Doctrine, who gave the following definition of its essence: “... the “unified military doctrine” is the doctrine adopted in the army of a given state that establishes the nature of the construction of the country’s armed forces, the methods of combat training of troops, and their driving on the basis of the views prevailing in the state on the nature of the military tasks facing it and the methods for their resolution, arising from the class essence of the state and determined by the level of development of the country's productive forces ”(Izbr. proizv., vol. 2, 1957, p. 8). The modern Soviet military doctrine proceeds from the peace policy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (). It was developed on the basis of instructions from the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Soviet government, as well as data from military science, and is based on the political and economic dominance of the USSR and other countries of the socialist community. The Soviet Military Doctrine reflects the policy of the CPSU in matters of war and peace, determines the essence and nature of possible military operations and the attitude towards them, and the tasks of preparing the Armed Forces and the country as a whole for the fight against the aggressor. The Soviet Military Doctrine determines the structure of the Armed Forces, their technical equipment, the direction in the development of military science and military art, the tasks and methods of training and political education of personnel. Great importance is attached to close cooperation between the Soviet Armed Forces and the armies of the fraternal socialist countries in ensuring the security of the entire socialist community. The Soviet Military Doctrine serves the cause of peace, the curbing of imperialist aggressors, and is clearly progressive in nature. The provisions of the Military Doctrine relating to the Armed Forces are reflected in military manuals, charters and other official manuals, as well as in military-theoretical works substantiating certain provisions of the Military Doctrine The Military Doctrine of the countries participating in the Warsaw Pact of 1955 are reflected as general to ensure the security of the entire socialist community, as well as specific provisions due to the characteristics of each country.
The military doctrine of the United States basically contains views on the conduct of war in order to gain world domination and is of an aggressive nature. It is expressed in the desire USA unite under its leadership all the countries of the capitalist world, use their territories and armed forces to wage war against the socialist countries and peoples fighting for freedom and national independence. Shortly after World War II (1939-45) USA The Military Doctrine of "Nuclear Deterrence" was adopted - the doctrine of nuclear blackmail and the preparation of a nuclear attack on Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (CCCP) and other socialist countries. With the creation of the NATO military bloc in April 1949, the “sword” and “shield” doctrine was adopted, in which the role of the “sword” was assigned to nuclear weapons and US aircraft, and the “shield” to the ground forces of the European countries participating in NATO, intended to use the results of nuclear strikes and invasions on the territory of the socialist countries. In the early 50s. 20th century The Military Doctrine of "massive retaliation" was adopted, providing for a surprise nuclear attack on the USSR and other socialist countries and unleashing a nuclear war on a world scale. Due to the growth of nuclear power Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (CCCP) In 1962, the United States adopted a military doctrine called the "flexible response strategy." The components of this doctrine are the strategic concepts of "assured destruction" (destruction of the enemy by nuclear strikes), "counterforce" (destruction of nuclear weapons and other military facilities) and "conflict escalation" (gradual expansion and aggravation of the military conflict).
The doctrine of "flexible response" in 1967 was adopted by the NATO Council as the official doctrine of this aggressive military bloc. At the same time, the FRG succeeded in getting NATO to adopt the "forward frontier" doctrine, which provides for the advancement of NATO forces directly to the borders of the socialist countries to invade their territories and quickly develop a conventional war into a nuclear one. The countries included in the imperialist military blocs are guided by the common Military Doctrine adopted in this or that bloc. At the same time, there are some peculiarities and differences in the military doctrine of each country. The military doctrine of the reactionary political and monopoly circles of the FRG has a revanchist character and is directed against the European socialist countries. The military doctrine of Great Britain, like the Military Doctrine of the United States, provides for a readiness to conduct a nuclear war as part of NATO and limited military operations. France after leaving the military system, NATO pursues an independent military policy. Its Military Doctrine proceeds from the fact that a war that can be drawn into France, will acquire the character of a general nuclear war, but strategic nuclear weapons are considered a means of preventing nuclear war. Rest capitalist countries members of military blocs do not play an independent military role.
The military doctrine of the independent developing countries for the most part reflects their striving to strengthen their national independence and oppose the aggressive policy of imperialism.
Russian military doctrine
For the first time in Russian history a coherent and logically consistent set of documents in the field of security policy and foreign policy was developed during 2000-2001: first, the National Security Concept was adopted, and then, based on its main provisions, the Military Doctrine, the Foreign Policy Concept, and the doctrine of information security were adopted , military construction plans.
The current military doctrine specifies the following goals for the use of the Russian Armed Forces and other troops:
in a large-scale (regional) war if it is unleashed by any state (group, coalition of states) - protecting the independence and sovereignty, territorial integrity of Russia and its allies, repelling aggression, defeating the aggressor, forcing him to end wars on conditions that meet the interests Russia and its allies;
in local hostilities and international armed conflicts - the localization of a hotbed of tension, the creation of prerequisites for ending a war, an armed conflict, or for forcing them to stop for early stages; neutralizing the aggressor and reaching a settlement on terms that meet the interests of Russia and its allies;
in internal armed conflicts - the defeat and liquidation of illegal armed formations, the creation of conditions for a full-scale settlement of the conflict on the basis of the fundamental law of the state of Russia and the federal legislation;
in operations to maintain and restore peace - the disengagement of the opposing sides, the stabilization of the situation, and the provision of conditions for a just peace settlement.
The current military doctrine provides that it reserves the right to use nuclear weapons in response to the use of nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction against it and (or) its allies, as well as in response to large-scale aggression with the use of conventional weapons in nationally critical areas. Russian security situations.
Sources
en.wikisource.org Wikisource - free library
chrono.ru Chronos - The World History in the Internet
- (lat. doctrina) doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, system, guiding theoretical or political principle. See also Military Doctrine... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
DOCTRINE- DOCTRINE, s, wives. (book). Teaching, scientific concept (usually about philosophical, political, ideological theory). Military doctrine (special) is a system of official state regulations on the military construction and military training of the country. ... ... Dictionary Ozhegov
DOCTRINE- (Latin doctrina doctrine), some systematized doctrine (usually philosophical, political or ideological), a coherent concept, a set of principles. The term "D." (in contrast to the almost synonymous “teaching”, “concept”, ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
DOCTRINE- a set of postulates that serve as the basis of economic theory. The doctrine contributes to the explanation of the theory and the implementation of the analysis of economic mechanisms, reflects the need to choose between sets of fundamental principles, on ... ... Economic dictionary
doctrine- uh. doctrine f. , lat. doctrine. Teaching, scientific or philosophical theory; a system, a guiding theoretical or political principle. ALS 2. In printed sheets there is no that life, that oratorical movement .. but you will recognize from them his manner and ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
Doctrine- a set of recognized scientific or official views on the goals, objectives, principles and main directions of ensuring something (for example, information security of the Russian Federation D. information security of the Russian Federation, in the field of international security Military ... Encyclopedia of Law
Doctrine- (Latin doctrina), doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, system, guiding theoretical or political principle (for example, military doctrine). … Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary More
In the East
Doctrine as a source of law
As a general rule, any doctrine is divided into official, created at the national or supranational level (expert opinions given above), and scientific, created at universities and other professorial associations.
Initially, the doctrine was the only source of international public law, it was expressed in the works of Hugo Grotius and other lawyers, who justified the existence of international law from the point of view of the natural law school. The development of positivism ultimately led to the decline of doctrine, and then to a rethinking of the role of doctrine in law. At present, in public international law, doctrine is a subsidiary source of law, the application of which is possible only in special circumstances.
The doctrine of the European Union is a conditional concept, which is a set of theoretical ideas about the goals, principles and legal forms of European integration. Traditionally … in states, the doctrine is made up of professional ideas of recognized authorities in the field of national law and, as a rule, has been formed over many decades, then in the process of forming the European legal system, the function of the doctrine today is performed by expert opinions of leading European experts invited to the EU commissions for the purpose of analysis current legislation and preparation of recommendations to determine the principles and content of new EU acts».
Doctrine in Islamic law
The special significance of the doctrine for the development of Islamic law is explained not only by the presence of many gaps, but also by the inconsistency of the Koran and the Sunnah. Most of the norms contained in them are of divine origin, which means they are considered eternal and unchanging. Therefore, they cannot be simply discarded and replaced by state regulations. Under these conditions, Muslim jurists, relying on fundamental sources, interpret them and form a solution to be applied in the current situation.
If in the VII-VIII centuries. Indeed, the sources of Muslim law were the Koran and the Sunnah, as well as ijma and "sayings of the companions", then, starting from the 9th-10th centuries, this role gradually passed to the doctrine. In essence, the cessation of ijtihad meant the canonization of the conclusions of the main schools of Muslim law that had developed by the middle of the 11th century.
The doctrinal development of Islamic law, while making it difficult to systematize, at the same time gave it a certain flexibility and the possibility of development. Modern Muslim legal doctrine as a source of law should be considered in several aspects. In a number of countries (Saudi Arabia, Oman, some principalities of the Persian Gulf), it continues to play the role of a formal source of law, in others (Egypt, Turkey, Morocco), subsidiary use of Islamic law is allowed if there are gaps in state regulatory legal acts.
see also
Literature
- Marchenko M.N. Sources of law: textbook. - M .: TK Velby; Prospekt Publishing House, 2006. - S. 605-610. - 760 p. - ISBN 5-98032-926-9
- Poldnikov D. Yu. Contractual theories of glossators. Moscow: Academy, 2008.
- Pryakhina T. M. Constitutional Doctrine of the Russian Federation / Ed. V. O. Luchina. Moscow: Unity, 2007.
- Tolstopyatenko G.P. European tax law. M., 2001.
- Khuzhokova I.M. Legal Doctrine as a sourse of private international law // Current issues at the time of Czech Presidency in EU. Prague, 2009. (Khuzhokova I. M.)
Notes
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .
Synonyms:See what "Doctrine" is in other dictionaries:
- (lat., doctrina, from docere to teach). Accounting, school, system. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. DOCTRINE [lat. doctrina Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
See teaching... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian dictionaries, 1999. doctrine science, teaching, theory; theodicy, pan-Americanism, Madhyamika, neoplasticism, Juche, conception, construction… Synonym dictionary
- (Latin doctrina), doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, system, guiding theoretical or political principle (for example, military doctrine) ... Modern Encyclopedia
- (lat. doctrina) doctrine, scientific or philosophical theory, system, guiding theoretical or political principle. See also Military Doctrine... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
DOCTRINE, s, women. (book). Teaching, scientific concept (usually about philosophical, political, ideological theory). Military doctrine (special) is a system of official state regulations on the military construction and military training of the country. ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
- (Latin doctrina doctrine), some systematized doctrine (usually philosophical, political or ideological), a coherent concept, a set of principles. The term "D." (in contrast to the almost synonymous “teaching”, “concept”, ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
The set of postulates that serve as the basis of economic theory. The doctrine contributes to the explanation of the theory and the implementation of the analysis of economic mechanisms, reflects the need to choose between sets of fundamental principles, on ... ... Economic dictionary
doctrine- uh. doctrine f. , lat. doctrine. Teaching, scientific or philosophical theory; a system, a guiding theoretical or political principle. ALS 2. In printed sheets there is no that life, that oratorical movement .. but you will recognize from them his manner and ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
