Links two identical sounds by lengthening them. Theory of sound and acoustics in plain language
The most common sign of increasing the duration of sounds in musical notation is a league. A league is an arcuate line located between adjacent notes of the same height. In fact, the league increases the duration of the first note by the sum of the durations of all subsequent notes located under this league. That is, even if there are several notes under the league, only the first one needs to be played. The rest only prolong the sound of this first note.
In rare cases, the so-called French league can be found in the musical notation of a work. It looks about the same as an ordinary league, but unlike it, it does not connect notes of the same height. A French slur placed next to a note slightly increases its duration. It is important to note that the choice of the time by which the duration of the sound increases lies entirely with the musician. The French League only hints that it would be nice to extend the sound of the note at this moment, and the performer himself makes the final decision on increasing the duration.
points
In addition to the league, dots are often used to increase the duration of sounds. Points in the recording are set just to the right of notes or pauses, and indicate that the duration of the corresponding note (pause) is increased exactly by half. For example, take the duration of a quarter note. If you put a dot next to it, then its duration will increase to three-eighths. All this is easy to calculate even in the mind, just to one fourth you need to add half of its duration, that is, one eighth.
For better assimilation of the material, let's analyze a note with a dot using an example. On the musical staff, shown just below, there is a note with a duration of one eighth with a dot. It is immediately followed by one sixteenth. Together with the point, one eighth is equal in duration to three sixteenths: 1/8 \u003d 2/16, which means that half of one eighth will be equal to 1/16. We already know that a dot doubles the length of a note, so 2/16 + 1/16 = 3/16. If one dotted eighth is equal to three sixteenths, then together with the next one sixteenth note they make up a duration of 4/16 or 2/8 or 1/4.
It turns out that with the standard count of "one, two, three, four", you should have time to play these first two notes. Moreover, one eighth is played for the first three, one sixteenth for the last count. The second note "mi" in the measure is played again on the count of "one", keeping the sound until the count of "four", since its duration is one fourth.
Once you have fully mastered the ratio of the durations of these notes, try playing the first two notes (one eighth and one sixteenth) on the count of “one”, and the last note in the bar (mi) on the count of “two”. After that, go to the account in your mind. In the future, it is in this way that rather complex works in terms of rhythm should be learned.
Very rarely in musical notation there are two dots next to the note. The second point in this case indicates an increase in the duration of the note by half of the duration of the first point. For example, a quarter note with two dots will increase by three sixteenth notes. The first dot lengthens the notes by two sixteenths, and the second one by one sixteenth.
musical sound
Alternative descriptionsGraphic sign depicting musical sound
Official diplomatic document
Official letter from the government
In banking practice, a synonym for a bond, the fact of recognizing a debt
. "Letter" scores
. "Drop" Melody
. "Musical" message of the diplomat
. "La" in music
. "Re" in music
Protest
. mi in music
chord salt
There are seven in music.
There are two of them in the word share
Graphic sign for indicating musical tones
Graphic sign for indicating tone in music
Graphic sign depicting musical sound
Diplomatic demarche
diplomatic document
diplomatic protest
Diplomatic letter about a foreign "straw", despite its own "logs"
diplomatic message
Do, re, mi
J. lat. a musical sign that defines tone, sound, voice. Above this note, I will not take my voice. Do you play notes? "No on the strings" He does not play the notes, does not know the notes, but by ear, by ear. Notes, a sheet or a notebook in which music is written in the signs accepted for this. According to its fundamental meaning: remark, note, explanation: any diplomatic attitude, message and statement. Musical, related to musical notes; music paper or music base, scribbled for music, five lines per line. Musical game, singing, according to the notes. Notation to read to whom, scold, pronounce, soap. Notary, rius m. sworn official, testifying contracts, obligations, and other transactions between private people; what a broker is for merchants. Notarial office
Squiggle from music stand
Foreign Ministry statement
Statement of protest
sound on paper
Sign in the score
Sign of musical literacy
Icon in score
sound icon
Both mi and la
Both mi and re
Both fa and la
Both fa and salt
Spanish folk dance
There are two of them in the word "beans"
Sharp is attributed to it
Each of the "lala-fa"
Each of the chord
Each syllable of the word "beans"
What kind of salt is not put in the soup
La in a chord
Ministry of Foreign Affairs protest
Mi from a chord
mi or si
Musical "salt"
Musical "la"
Musical "fa"
Musical do
musical squiggle
Musical and diplomatic document
Musical "before"
musical sign
Music circle
Music symbol for a diplomat
Message from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
orchestral salt
Official diplomatic address from one government to another
Official diplomatic document
Letter from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Protest
Foreign Ministry protest
Protest by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
protest statement
Protest attack by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
River in the Murmansk region
The seventh part of music
Si or do
Si like mi
Salt in a chord
Salt in the world of music
Salt in music
Salt in the score
Salt from chord
Salt on music stand
Salt on the music stand in the score
Salt mined by vocals
Salt, but not spice
Salt but spice
The diplomat and the musician
Fa or salt
Fake
Language of diplomats
A diplomatic letter about a foreign "straw", despite its own "logs"
Score letter
. "... bene"
. "musical message" diplomat
Each syllable of the word "beans"
Musical "la"
Musical "before"
Musical "fa"
. la in music
. "re" in music
. mi in music
There are two of them in the word "beans"
Each of the "la-la-fa"
Musical "salt"
. "drop" melody
Aten in reverse
Aten from end to beginning
Anagram for "NATO"
Lengthening (sound)
Increasing the duration of the sound, which creates a long sound; a long vowel can go further into a diphthong and \/ or change timbre: cf. put aside - brush aside(historically with a long vowel) - word-vats. odmietat", Czech. odmitat Vowel lengthening, which has acquired morphological functions, is the same as extended vocalism, lengthened vocalism, extension stage ( ablaut stage).
Brief conceptual and terminological guide to etymology and historical lexicology. - Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov RAS, Etymology and history of Russian words. J. J. Warbot, A. F. Zhuravlev. 1998 .
See what "Lengthening (sound)" is in other dictionaries:
LEADERSHIP- - relations of dominance and subordination, influence and following in the system of interpersonal relations in a group. In the course of the research, various styles L., a number of L. concepts have been developed. The theory of leadership roles (R. Bailes) considers roles ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
Japanese writing Kanji ... Wikipedia
A HEART- A HEART. Contents: I. Comparative anatomy........... 162 II. Anatomy and histology ........... 167 III. Comparative physiology .......... 183 IV. Physiology .................. 188 V. Pathophysiology ................. 207 VI. Physiology, pat. ... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia
I Bronchitis (bronchitis; bronchus [and] (Bronchi) + itis) inflammation of the bronchi. There are acute bronchitis, acute bronchiolitis (primary inflammation of the distal parts of the bronchial tree of bronchioles) and chronic bronchitis, characterized by diffuse ... ... Medical Encyclopedia
initial- 3.1 primary general education school: A school organized as an independent institution, as well as as part of a basic or secondary general education school (the term of study is primary school 4 years).
The loudness or amplitude of sound vibrations is one of the most important characteristics of sound. Loudness is measured in decibels, in honor of the inventor of the telephone, physicist A. G. Bell (1847-1922). The weakest sound perceived by our ear is about 10 dB. Shout - 70 dB. The strongest clap of thunder - about 100 dB, and over 130 dB - is already perceived as pain in the ears. What does it turn out: the ticking of a wristwatch at a distance of 1 m is 30 dB, and 4 times louder - already deaf?
The fact is that the sound volume here is not proportional to decibels. As we already know, 10 dB, or 1 B (surprisingly, why was it necessary to introduce these decibels when it’s just much more convenient and shorter in bels?) is the weakest sound still perceived by normal hearing. But for the origin, or for 0 B, a sound 10 times weaker is taken. Suddenly, someone will hear! A sound of 2 B, or 20 dB, is no longer 2, but 100 times stronger than 0 B, etc. That is, the number of bels measures the order of increasing sound volume. A sound of 10 B (or 100 dB) is 1010, or 10 billion times louder than the threshold of 0 B! We estimate the cry of Aunt Sonya from Odessa at 7 B (70 dB), and twice as much - 14 B (140 dB) - this is the sound when an intercontinental rocket is launched, from which you can go deaf. So this sound is not 2 times, but 107, that is, 10 million times louder than Aunt Sonya's scream!
And all this unique "palette" of sounds - from 16 to 20,000 Hz, and from 1 B to sounds billions of times louder - is perceived and transmitted to the brain by our ear.
Rice. 110. The device of the human ear:
1 - tympanic membrane; 2 - articulated bones; 3 - oval window; 4 - main membraneThe ear is a complex sound-receiving apparatus operating over an extremely wide range of frequencies and amplitudes. Sound waves reach our outer ear - its auricle, which is a mouthpiece that collects sound waves. Through the external auditory canal, sound waves reach the tympanic membrane 1 (Fig. 110), which separates the outer ear from the middle ear. Under the influence of incoming waves, this membrane vibrates, making forced oscillations with the frequency of the perceived sound. The vibrations of the tympanic membrane are transmitted through the system of articulated bones 2 (hammer, anvil and stapes) acting as a lever to the so-called oval window 3, which closes the inner cavity of the ear labyrinth. The ear labyrinth in that part of it, where the endings of the auditory nerve are sensitive to mechanical irritation, is filled with a liquid - endolymph.
Inside is the so-called main membrane 4, consisting of several thousand (about 4,500) fibers of various lengths, each tuned to a certain specific tone. Sound waves that have come to the inner ear cause vibrations of those fibers of the main membrane that are tuned to the frequencies contained in these waves.
Rice. 111. Sound "location" of a person
From the above description of auditory perception, it becomes clear why our ear is able to distinguish individual tones in a complex sound, for example, in a musical chord. Great importance has the fact that we have not one, but two identical ears. By evaluating the strength of a sound with both ears, we can determine the direction in which it reaches us. When one of our ears is plugged, we cannot determine exactly where the sounds are coming from. Listening with two ears, we can always turn our head so that we look in the direction of the sound source (Fig. 111).But this is not always easy to do. If the sound is heard at a place equally distant from both ears, the direction of the sound source may be determined erroneously.
In this case, it is useful not to immediately turn your face to a rustle or sound, but, on the contrary, turn it to the side, directing one of your ears at it in this way. And by the difference in the volume of sound in the right and left ear, we can easily determine the direction from which the sound is heard. We sometimes instinctively do it when we listen.
What pleases the musical ear?
The complexity of the ear device determines its enormous possibilities for perceiving sound not just as a signal of a certain strength and frequency, but as an aesthetic factor, namely, music.
Not everyone has an ear for music. The author himself, for example, hears such weak sounds (probably even 0 B!), which surprises doctors, but in terms of musicality, as they say, a bear stepped on his ear. Subtlety, or sensitivity, of hearing and musicality are two different things.
The great Beethoven, for example, was generally deaf. He put the end of his reed to the piano, and pressed the other end to his teeth. And the sound reached his inner ear, which was intact. Take a ticking wristwatch in your teeth and plug your ears - the ticking will turn into strong, heavy blows, it will become so much stronger. Almost deaf people talk on the phone, pressing the receiver to the temporal bone. The deaf often dance to music - the sound enters their inner ear through the floor and bones of the skeleton. These are the tortuous ways that sounds reach the human auditory nerve, but the “ear of music” remains.
The human voice has very narrow limits of oscillation frequencies: from 64 Hz - the lowest bass note to 1,300 Hz - the upper soprano note. The piano provides much wider limits: from 27.5 - the lower “A”, to 4096 Hz - the upper “C”. But even with the same frequency, the sound of a singer's voice, for example, differs from the sound of a singer's voice, and they, in turn, differ from the sound of a clarinet, violin, piano, etc. What is the matter, where does this difference come from?
Rice. 112. Sounds: a - "pure"; b - "complex"
The "coloring" of the voice, the originality of the sound are characterized by timbre. A “pure” tone is graphically represented by a sinusoid, as it should be for harmonic oscillations (Fig. 112, a), and the sound, for example, of a pipe also gives a periodic, but complex graph (Fig. 112, b). How does such a sound come about?Rice. 113. Complex sound (a) as the sum of the main tone (b) and overtones (c and d)
With the help of special sound analyzers, it was found that any complex musical sound consists of a series of simple, or pure, tones, the vibration frequencies of which are related as 1: 2: 3: 4, etc. The lowest sound is called the main one, and all the rest, higher (twice, three times, four times, etc.) tones are called higher tones, or overtones. So, the addition of all these tones gives a complex tone of a musical instrument. For example, the violin gives a complex tone, depicted by graph a in Fig. 113, the main tone - graph b; it can be seen that the frequency is the same as that of the complex tone; graphs c and d show the two main overtones of the violin. And the sum of sounds according to graphs b, c and d gives a complex tone according to graph a. Noise differs from musical sounds in that it does not have a specific frequency of oscillation, and hence the pitch.This is what, it turns out, depends on the originality, charm and beauty of the sounds of various voices and musical instruments.
Wind instruments (trumpet, saxophone, clarinet) produce quite loud sounds caused by the vibration of the air column in the instrument. The longer this column, the lower the sound. The largest wind instrument is the organ. The air for its sound is supplied to the pipes from a special pump. The number of pipes in an organ can reach tens of thousands, and the power of its sound will be equivalent to dozens of brass bands.
Rice. 114. Resonators amplify the sound of tuning forks
Wind instruments to increase the sound volume are equipped with a bell-horn - a kind of funnel to amplify the sound. For stringed instruments, the resonator acts as a horn. A resonator is a container or box with air, the smallest length of which is equal to a quarter of the length of the sound wave that they want to amplify (Fig. 114). For example, at a frequency of 330 Hz, the wavelength is equal to the speed of sound in air of 330 m/s divided by the frequency in hertz, or 1 m. Therefore, the minimum length of the resonator box should be 0.25 m. In stringed instruments (violins, guitars, pianos ) resonators of complex shape, since they should amplify sounds of different frequencies. Living beings also have resonators. Frogs, for example, inflate bubbles - ear or goiter - to enhance croaking. A person has a mouth and larynx, which act as a resonator and mouthpiece. To sing each sound, a special position of the lips, tongue and shape of the resonator cavity in the mouth is necessary. The resonance of strong vibrations can even destroy the resonator.Wind or soldiers walking in step can destroy a bridge if its own frequency matches the disturbing force, causing resonance. There have been such cases. For example, in 1940, the Teikoma Bridge in the USA collapsed due to self-oscillations caused by the wind. When crossing bridges, soldiers are ordered to go out of step so as not to cause it to resonate.
They say that Chaliapin could sing so that the ceiling lamps in the chandeliers burst. This is not a legend. Suppose we know the natural frequency of a glass vessel, such as a glass. This can be set by the pitch of the chime of that glass after a light click on it. And if we sing this note loudly near the glass, then, like Chaliapin, we can break the glass with our singing. You just have to sing as loudly as Chaliapin.
Is there some more interesting experience resonance in musical instruments, such as the piano. Open the piano, press the right pedal, releasing the strings, and sing a note into its cavity. When you finish singing, you will hear the piano "sing along" to you with its strings.
Or if you tie two pianos in a thick metal wire different rooms and play on one of them, then the second (with the pedal pressed!) will play the same melody by itself, without a pianist.
That's how sounds come about - musical and not so much. But the sound is not eternal - it appeared and disappeared. Is it possible to save it "for future use", to write it down? And how to do it? Now there are many sound recording devices and devices, mostly electronic. But for the first time sound was recorded mechanically.
The ability to record sounds and then play them back was discovered as early as 1877 by the great American inventor T. A. Edison (1847-1931). Sound recording quickly entered our lives. Thanks to the ability to record and reproduce sounds, sound cinema was born. Recording musical works, reports, stories and even whole plays on gramophone or gramophone records has become a mass form of sound recording.
Rice. 115. Scheme of mechanical sound recording:
1 - thin elastic plate; 2 - horn; 3 - rotating disk; 4 - cutterOn fig. 115 is a simplified diagram of a mechanical sound recorder. Sound waves from a source (singer, orchestra, etc.) enter the horn 2, in which a thin elastic plate 1, called the membrane, is fixed. Under the action of these waves, the membrane vibrates. The vibrations of the membrane are transmitted to the cutter 4 associated with it, the tip of which draws a sound groove on the rotating disk 3. The sound groove twists in a spiral from the edge of the disk to its center. The figure below shows a view of the sound grooves on the record (through a magnifying glass, the grooves are clearly visible).
The disk on which sound recording is made is made of a special soft material; it is usually a wax alloy consisting of a range of mineral, vegetable and animal waxes, as well as other organic matter. From this wax disc, a copper copy (cliché) is removed by electroforming, from which prints are then made on discs made of special materials. This is how gramophone records are made.
When playing a sound, a gramophone record is placed under a needle connected to the membrane of the gramophone, and it is brought into rotation. Moving along the wavy groove of the record, the end of the needle oscillates, along with it the membrane, and these vibrations quite accurately reproduce the recorded sound.
The magnetic recording of sound replaced the mechanical one, and there seemed to be no return to it. But this return took place, however, already at a new level. Instead of a needle, the sounds on the disk are recorded by a laser beam. The disc is much more compact, stronger, the recording quality is higher.
Indeed, the new is the well-forgotten old; technology, like many other things, develops “in a spiral”. The old is repeated, but on a new level!
Sound curiosities
Now that we know how sounds are extracted and recorded, let's talk about the best rooms to do this. After all, concert halls and theaters come with both good and bad acoustics. In some rooms, the playing of musical instruments and the voices of singers are heard and distinguishable even at a great distance, while in others they merge even close. Here is what the famous American physicist R. Wood (the one who built the infrasonic tube) wrote about room acoustics:
“Any sound produced in a building is heard for quite a long time after the end of the sound of the source; due to repeated reflections, he circles the buildings several times, and in the meantime other sounds are heard, and the listener is often unable to catch them in the proper order and understand them. So, for example, if a sound lasts 3 seconds and the speaker speaks at a speed of 3 syllables per second, then the sound waves corresponding to 9 syllables will move around the room all together and create complete confusion and noise, due to which the listener will not be able to understand the speaker .
In such conditions, the speaker is left to speak very clearly and not too loudly. But usually speakers, on the contrary, try to speak loudly and this only increases the noise.
Rooms with smooth walls, floors and ceilings have the ability to reflect sound waves very well. In such a room, due to the incursion of the previous sound waves into the subsequent ones, a mixing of sounds is obtained, a hum is formed: the sound in the room does not immediately disappear along with the termination of its source.
The acoustics of the room is characterized by the so-called reverberation time - the time it takes for the sound to fade to an inaudible limit. Reverberation depends, on the one hand, on the volume of the room, and on the other hand, on its shape and the material of the walls, ceiling and floor.
Premises with upholstered walls, carpets, draperies, upholstered furniture, and also filled with people weakly reflect sound waves; to a large extent, sounds are absorbed by a soft environment, and therefore their reverberation is much less.
But it is also not worth reducing the reverberation too much, since the sounds then quickly die out and do not have sufficient volume and brightness. Singers and musicians know how difficult it is to sing and play in small rooms full of upholstered furniture, draperies, carpets.
In one of the best halls in terms of acoustics - in the Hall of Columns in Moscow - the reverberation time is about 1.75 seconds when it is filled with the public, and about 4 seconds when it is empty.
Sound interference plays a significant role in room acoustics, which we will talk about later.
We all know the reflection of sound by the word "echo". Echo is the return of reflected sound waves back to the sound source. Sometimes the reflection occurs several times, then the echo becomes multiple. There is an echo that repeats a shot 40-50 times, and a big word - about 30 times. There are many places in Russia where you can hear the echo. If there is a plain surrounded by forest, then with highly likely there is also an echo. It is worth shouting loudly or clapping your hands in a clearing, as the sound, reflected from the edge of the forest, will return back. In the mountains, this is less common, but it is more diverse. On fig. 116 shows a diagram of the occurrence of an echo in cases where the obstacle is higher than the sound source, and in fig. 117 - at the same level and even below it. Dashed lines show the course of incident and reflected sound waves. It can be seen that in the second case the echo is much more probable.
Rice. 116. When the sound source is below an obstacle, there may be no echo
Rice. 117. For a “good” echo, you yourself need to be no lower than the obstacle
To find the echo yourself, do not get too close to the obstacle, otherwise the direct and reflected sounds will simply merge and prolong each other (this is called reverberation). If we are at a distance of 160-170 m from the obstacle, then the echo will return in a second. The echo responds best to clapping your hands. Sharply pronounced words are also suitable, especially in a high female or childish voice.Thus, a forest, a high fence, a mountain, a house, and other obstacles that reflect the echo are real “mirrors” for sound. For they reflect sound just like a mirror of light. And if this mirror is concave, like a reflector, then how? Can sound, like light, come into focus? Yes, this will happen; This property of sound was used, for example, by the builders of medieval castles, where they often arranged so-called “sound mirrors” - concave ceilings or walls like light reflectors. "Talking" statues were placed at the focal points of such mirrors. "Sound mirrors" amplify any sounds, and it seems to visitors that the statues are talking. Sometimes cavities are arranged in the walls - pipes that make it possible to hear whispers at the opposite end of the hall - where the sound is amplified by a sound mirror. An old drawing (book of 1560 edition) shows some of these tricks - "sound mirrors", pipes, "talking statues" (Fig. 118).
Rice. 118. Sound curiosities and tricks in an ancient castle
In the New Athos Panteleimon Monastery, the author himself observed how a whisper was transmitted to the opposite wall of a huge hall with a convex ceiling - a sound mirror. These "eavesdropping" devices were already when there was no electronics.The reflection of sound waves is used in the simplest devices for amplifying sound - horns (Fig. 119). As we know, there are also horns on wind instruments, there were also gramophones (portable gramophones were sometimes called gramophones - from the Pate company that produced them). Reflecting from the walls of the horn, the sound is amplified in the direction from the narrow part of the horn to the wide one.
Rice. 119. Sound, reflected from the walls of the horn, amplified
In principle, there are also sound lenses that refract sound. Arguing in this way, by analogy with light, we can build both a sound microscope and a sound telescope ... But sound lenses - inflated shells, balls, pillows, etc. - are too crude to serve as instruments.A very interesting phenomenon, which is characteristic of all wave processes, is called interference. If the sounds of the same frequencies, shown in Fig. 120 sinusoids - solid and dashed, superimposed on each other, then the amplitude of the total oscillations can either double (Fig. 120, a) or become equal to zero (Fig. 120, b): the sound will disappear. It all depends on whether the sounds add up without a phase difference or in antiphase.
Rice. 120. Addition of sounds of the same frequencies: a - in one phase; b - in antiphase
Somehow I can’t believe that if we add the sounds of two roaring aircraft engines, we can get absolute silence. Well, let's check. Only for this we will not have to go to the airfield and ask the pilots there to start the engines of the planes. Let's take two telephone handsets and feed them with a current from one source with a frequency of about 1,000 Hz. The tubes will hum with the same tone, which should be sufficient in volume. Let's place these tubes at a distance of 1.5 m from each other. Let us stand at a distance of 5-6 m from the tubes, hold one ear with our finger and, slowly moving our head, we will find zones in space where the tubes roar with double the volume and where they almost fall silent. The distance between these zones is about 1 m. With our ear movements, we found both a point where the sounds were in the same phase and added up in volume, and one where they were in antiphase and disappeared. Of course, for the real "cancellation" of the roar of the engines, our actions must be more complicated.And one more interesting effect connected with sound, as well as with light as a wave phenomenon.
You probably do not need to have an ear for music to notice how the tone, the pitch, the horn of a locomotive changes when an oncoming train rushes past you. While both trains were approaching, the tone was much higher than after the meeting, when the trains began to move away from each other. Why is this happening?
The whistle of an oncoming locomotive emits all the time the same sound of a well-defined frequency. But the ear perceives different number oscillations per second, depending on whether you are moving toward or away from the beep. Moving towards you, you pick up more vibrations in a second, since the sound source itself moves towards you. The sound seems higher to you.
And everything happens the other way around, if you move away from the sound source - then the sound seems to you lower in tone. Such an effect of an apparent change in frequency is called the Doppler effect, after the Austrian physicist K. Doppler (1803-1853).
It is known that a change in the frequency of light waves leads to a change in color - the higher the frequency, the closer to purple and farther from red the color will be. Therefore, when moving towards the light source, the red color will change to yellow, and possibly to green, blue and purple.
We will touch on this issue when we talk about light and color. It's just that the author, looking ahead, mentioned the Doppler effect regarding light in order to tell about an anecdotal incident that happened to Robert Wood, already known to us.
One day, a police officer stopped Wood's car for running a red light. Wood, trying to justify himself, told the policeman that when moving towards a red source, due to the Doppler effect, this color could well seem green to him. But the police still fined Wood, not for driving through a red light, but ... for exceeding the speed limit. Still - in order to take the red light for green, Wood in his car had to rush towards the traffic light at a fantastic speed of 135 million km / h!
But a joke is a joke, and it was the Doppler effect that allowed scientists, based on the observed "red shift", to conclude that the Universe is expanding and that it was once compressed "to a point".
What was the argument between Isaac Newton and Christian Huygens?
And they argued about what is light? Ancient scientists imagined it very mystically. It was believed that special thin tentacles come out of the eyes of a person, animals and other creatures, and when they feel objects, the eye sees them. Well, before that, only scientists could think of it! First, what about the "feeling" of distant and hot objects? How can these tentacles reach, for example, the Sun? Yes, and they will burn there, no matter what they are made of.
Or if they show something interesting, then everyone will pull their tentacles there. They will get mixed up there, and there won’t be enough places for feeling on this “interesting” one if a lot of people are looking at it.
A more plausible hypothesis about the nature of light was put forward 2,500 years ago by the Greek mathematician Pythagoras (the one whose "trousers are equal in all directions"). He believed that each object constantly emits streams of small particles in all directions, which, falling into the eyes, cause sensations of either light or the outlines of objects.
But a truly scientific dispute arose in the 17th century. between the so-called corpuscular and wave theories of the nature of light. The first is associated with the name of Isaac Newton, and the second with Christian Huygens.
Newton adhered to the so-called corpuscular theory of light, according to which light is a stream of particles (or corpuscles in Latin) coming from a light source in all directions. Almost like in the well-forgotten theory of Pythagoras. It is clear that this is due to the transfer of matter, i.e., particles that, like bullets from a machine gun, constantly scatter from a luminous object, and if the eye comes across their path, the latter perceives these particles as light.
According to Huygens, light is a stream of waves distributed in an unknown, hypothetical medium - ether (not to be confused with a strong-smelling light liquid that is used for anesthesia!), Filling everything and everyone around. This ether also penetrates into objects - air, glass, water, and, of course, it fills the entire vast space between stars, planets and other celestial bodies. For light travels in the air, and in transparent bodies, and in outer space. To imagine waves without an elastic medium in which these waves could propagate in the form of mechanical vibrations, Huygens at that time, of course, could not.
Such an action, when the substance itself is not transferred, but the state of the medium between the bodies (the same ether) changes, is called in science a wave process.
Both of these theories or hypotheses existed in parallel, and neither of them could win a decisive victory. The situation, as they say, was a stalemate. The laws of light propagation known at that time from experience were more or less successfully explained by both theories.
The second step is the distinction between the height, strength, timbre of the voice on the material of the same sounds, combinations of words and phrases.
Game "In the forest"
Children take turns calling the name of the driver (the driver stands with his back to them). The driver by ear determines and shows who called him.
Then the game becomes more complicated: all the children call the driver (Ay!), And he guesses who called him.
The last variant of the complication of this game is that the driver says (Ay!), Now quietly, then loudly, and the children determine whether he is far or close.
Then each child takes turns saying (Ay!), either loudly or quietly, depending on what the teacher says:
"Far off into the woods"
“He calls close, from the very edge of the forest.”
The game "Who said meow?"
(A toy kitten is shown to the children, the teacher asks to remember, listen carefully how he meows when he is close (loud) and when he is far (quiet). Then he says “Meow”, changing the strength of his voice, and the children determine whether the kitten meows close or far
Then the children themselves meow at the signal of the teacher: “close”, “far”.
A further complication of the game is that children will distinguish between meows, focusing on the timbre and individual characteristics of the speaker's voice. The teacher explains that the kitten is very afraid of the puppy and meows plaintively, trembling and freezing with fear.
Each child takes turns meowing, depicting fear, and the driver guesses. Similarly, classes are held in which children learn, for example, to distinguish where the steamer is buzzing (oooh) - far (quietly) or close (loudly);
What kind of pipe is playing, big (ooh) - pronounced in a low voice) or small (ooh) - in a high voice.
Who is crying? - a boy (a-a-a) - in a low voice, or a girl (a-a-a) - in a high voice, etc.
Children stand in a circle leading in the center of the circle. One of the children calls his name, the driver recognizes by voice who called him, and approaches him.
Game "Three Bears"
Three bears are placed in front of the children - a large one, a medium one and a small one. Then the fairy tale "Three Bears" is told to the children - in an abbreviated version.
The corresponding replicas are pronounced then:
Children guess bears.
Who sat on my chair and moved it from its place?
Who took my spoon and moved it from its place?
Who touched my cup and ate soup from it?
Who lay down on my bed and wrinkled it? Etc.
Pictures of domestic animals and their cubs are laid out in front of the children:
Cow and calf (mu-mu);
Goats and kid (be-be);
Pigs and piglet (oink-oink);
Goose and gosling (ha-ha);
Cats and kitten (meow-meow), etc.
An adult pronounces each onomatopoeia either in a low voice (cow), or in a high voice (calf). Children, focusing on the quality and pitch of the sound at the same time, find and raise the corresponding picture
(for example, a cow or a calf).
The third step is the differentiation of words similar in sound composition.
Game "Right or Wrong".
The teacher shows the child a picture and loudly, clearly calls what is drawn on it, for example: "Carriage".
Then he explains:
“I will call this picture either right or wrong, and you listen carefully. If I make a mistake, clap your hands.
Wagon - wagon - waggon - wagon - facon - wagon "etc.
(First, give words that are light in sound composition, then more complex ones).
Then the teacher shows a blank sheet of paper and calls:
Paper - pumaga - mumaga - pumaka - bumaka - gumaga - paper
The complication of this game is that children will react to an incorrectly spoken word not by clapping, but by raising a circle of colored cardboard. First, they offer to raise the red circle if you hear the wrong word, green if the word is pronounced correctly, etc.
Play "Listen and remember" .
Before the children, pictures are laid out with objects whose names are similar in sound:
Cancer, varnish, poppy, tank
House, com, scrap, catfish
Goat, braid
Puddles, skis
Bear, mouse, bowl, etc.
An adult names 3-4 words in a certain sequence, the child selects the corresponding pictures and arranges them in the named order.
Game "Tell me a word" .
An adult reads a poem, and the child finishes the last word that fits in meaning and rhyme:
Not a bird on the branch -
small animal,
The fur is warm, like a heating pad.
His name is ... (squirrel).
Don't be afraid - it's a goose
I myself ... (I'm afraid).
Always dirty
Rescues ... (water).
The ox is afraid to enter the house:
- It will bend under me ... (floor).
Chizhik whistled:
- Phew, wow, wow!
I've been dewdrops in the morning ... (I drink!)
The fourth step is the differentiation of syllables.
By the fourth step, children are already prepared to learn to distinguish between syllables. The easiest sounds to pronounce are: f, c, p, b, n, therefore it is better to start distinguishing syllables from elementary combinations that include these sounds.
The game "The Fourth Extra"
The teacher says several syllables, for example:
Na-na-na-pa
Children determine what is superfluous here (pa).
Then the syllable series become more complicated:
Na-but-na ma-ma-mo-ma
Ka-ka-ga-ka ti-ki-ti-ti
Pa-ba-pa-pa wa-wa-woo-wa
Same or different game .
The teacher calls the driver and says a syllable in his ear (for example, pa). The child repeats it aloud. Then the teacher calls the same syllable or opposition. It should look something like this:
Child (pa) - teacher (pa)
Child (pa) - teacher (ba)
Child (ka) - teacher (ha), etc.
After the driver and the teacher pronounce a certain syllable, the children indicate whether they are the same or different.
In order for the teacher to be able to control each child, he suggests raising a red chip for the same syllables, and sitting silently for different syllables.
The first syllable is always called by the teacher. And the fact that he does it in a whisper increases the children's interest in the task!
Cleanliness.
The adult starts, and the kid finishes the last syllable.
Ba-bo-ba - there are two tables by the road ... (ba).
Za-zu-za - go home, who ... (for).
Ti-di-ti - to the moon le ... (ti).
De-de-te - let's sit in the dark ... (those).
Lu-lu-lu - I'm on green onions ... (lu).
Fe-ve-fe - I'll sit on the co ... (fe).
Gradually, during this period, children should master the ability to distinguish all oppositional sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, fricative and explosive, hard and soft.
The fifth step is the differentiation of sounds.
At this stage, children learn to distinguish phonemes (sounds of their native language).
It is necessary to start with the distinction of vowel sounds.
Game "Guess"
The teacher gives the children pictures of a wolf, a girl, a bird, and explains:
The wolf howls - woo
The girl is crying - ah-ah-ah
The teacher pronounces the sound briefly;
Children are given circles of three colors instead of pictures and explains:
The red circle corresponds to the sound (a), yellow (y), green (and)
In the series of vowels A, U, I include other sounds, for example, O, S, E, to which children should respond.
Similarly, we learn to distinguish consonant sounds.
Lost sound game.
Children must find the word that does not fit the meaning and choose the right one:
Mom with barrels (daughters) went We carry boards to the mountain,
On the road along the village. We will build a new room (house).
Sat in a spoon (boat) and - let's go!
Back and forth along the river.
Bear cries and roars:
Asks bees to give ice (honey).
The sixth step is the formation of the skills of elementary sound analysis.
It is necessary to start work by teaching children to determine the number of syllables in a word and to slap two and three-syllable words.
Clap your name game
The teacher should explain and show the children how to slap words of varying complexity, how to highlight the stressed syllable. We choose the driver, we ask him:
What is your name?
Your name can be slammed like this: Ma-sha. Etc.
The game "Let's call the word"
We teach children to identify the stressed syllable in a word. There are pictures on the tables in front of the children. Everyone says their word, for example:
I have "Machine".
Let's call this word: ma-shi-na.
Game "How many sounds?"
At this stage, children are able to determine the number of vowels during continuous pronunciation (one, two or three vowels: a, ay, oui, aea).
Children are given several - one-color circles or sticks. The teacher pronounces one, two or three vowel sounds, for example:
Children have three mugs on the tables. We agree that the red circle denotes the sound (a), yellow (y), green (and). Then the teacher pronounces a combination of these sounds, first two sounds each - ay, wa, ui, ai ... Then three sounds each - aui, iau, aiu ... ..
The game "Last Sound, Respond!"
(first we teach children to determine the last sound in a word - deaf, explosive, consonants are most easily given to children)
Children one by one go to the teacher's table and take out pictures from the envelope (selected in advance). Loudly, clearly call them, highlighting the last sound. Then repeats this sound separately. There may be the following pictures: cat, poppy, bow, spider, broom, etc.
This game can be varied, gradually complicating the task, for example:
Children are laid out on a typesetting canvas so that on one side there are objects whose names end in a sound (t), and on the other - in a sound (k).
The teacher shows the children one picture at a time and calls them, omitting the last sound, for example:
The child repeats the whole word, and then pronounces the sound that the teacher missed.
The child must insert the right word into the poem and determine which sound is missing. If he coped with this task easily, you can ask where the sound is missing: at the beginning, middle or end of the word.
He lives underground.
We are dark. We ask dad
We turn on brighter la ... pu (lamp).
Entered the arena ... games (tigers),
We were all silent with fear.
Advice for educators on the topic:
"Ontogenetic features of development
phonemic hearing"
Phonemic hearing in a child begins to form very early.
In the second week of life, the child, having heard the sound of a human voice, stops sucking at the mother's breast, stops crying when they start talking to him.
By the end of the first month of life, the baby can be soothed with a lullaby.
By the end of the third month of life, he turns his head towards the speaker and follows him with his eyes.
During the period of babbling, the child repeats the visible articulation of the adult's lips, tries to imitate. Repeated repetition of the kinesthetic sensation from a certain movement leads to the consolidation of the motor skill of articulation.
From the age of 6 months, the child, by imitation, pronounces individual phonemes, syllables, adopts the tone, tempo, rhythm, melody and intonation of speech.
Already by the age of 2, children distinguish all the subtleties mother tongue, understand and respond to words that differ in just one phoneme ( bear - bowl).
By the age of 3-4, the child's phonemic perception improves so much that he begins to differentiate first vowels and consonants, then soft and hard, sonoras, hissing and whistling.
By the age of 4, a normal child should differentiate all sounds, i.e. he must have a phonemic perception. By this time, the child completes the formation of the correct sound pronunciation.
In the work on the formation of phonemic processes, one can
identify the following steps:
Stage 1 – recognition of nonverbal sounds. For example, "Guess what it sounds." 4-5 items are placed in front of the child (for example, metal box, plastic cup, wooden box, etc.), which can be heard when tapped different sounds. With the help of a pencil, an adult causes the sound of each object, reproduces it repeatedly until the child catches the nature of the sound. The game begins with two contrasting sounds with visual support: on metal and wood, later the third and fourth sound options are added. Then, only by ear (the child turns away), it is proposed to determine what sounds.
Stage 2 – distinguishing the height, strength, timbre of the voice on the material of the same sounds, words, phrases. The adult invites the child to turn away and guess which of the children called him. First, the child is called by name, then (to complicate) pronouncing a short AU.
Stage 3 -distinguishing words that are close in their sound composition.
The child is asked to repeat two words after the adult and determine if they sound similar.
The adult invites the child to name the objects shown in the pictures and connect those of them whose names sound similar.
Stage 4 -syllable differentiation.
Reproduction of syllabic combinations with a common consonant and different vowel sounds: ta-to-tu, you-ta-to, mu-we-ma, mo-ma-we, etc.
Reproduction of syllabic combinations with a common vowel and different consonants: ta-ka-pa, ka-na-pa, fa-ha-ka, ba-da-ta, etc.
Stage 5 -phoneme differentiation.
The game “Clap your hands if you hear a sound ...” An adult names and repeats many times, for example, the vowel sound A, which the child must distinguish among other sounds (clap his hands). Then the adult slowly, clearly, with pauses, pronounce the sound sequence, for example: A-U-M-I-S-Y-O-R, etc. The exercise is repeated until each vowel is pronounced by the child accurately and confidently.
Repetition of a combination of vowel sounds
two by three by four
JSC AIU AOUI
UA IAO IOUA
AI UIA YYOU
Etc. etc. etc.
Stage 6 -development of skills in elementary sound analysis.
Consultation for educators
