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Presentations on breeding animal plants microorganisms fungi. Presentation on biology on the topic "Selection of microorganisms. Biotechnology" (grade 11)

DISCOVERIES IN THE FIELD OF BIOLOGY IN THE ERA OF STR

Introduction
Current state of biotechnology
Biotechnology and its role in practical human activities
Biotechnology in crop production

Tissue culture method

Cloning

New discoveries in the field of medicine

Genetic Engineering

Transgenic products: pros and cons
Genetically modified foods

Consequences of the development of biotechnology in the era of scientific and technological revolution

Introduction

Biotechnology is the industrial use of biological processes and systems based on the cultivation of highly effective forms of microorganisms, cultures of cells and tissues of plants and animals with properties necessary for humans. Certain biotechnological processes (baking, winemaking) have been known since ancient times. But biotechnology achieved its greatest success in the second half of the 20th century and is becoming increasingly important for human civilization.

Current state of biotechnology

Since ancient times, individual biotechnological processes have been known to be used in areas of practical human activity. These include baking, winemaking, brewing, preparing fermented milk products, etc. Our ancestors had no idea about the essence of the processes underlying such technologies, but over the course of thousands of years, using trial and error, they improved them. The biological essence of these processes was revealed only in the 19th century. thanks to the scientific discoveries of L. Pasteur. His work served as the basis for the development of production using various types of microorganisms. In the first half of the 20th century. microbiological processes began to be used for the industrial production of acetone and butanol, antibiotics, organic acids, vitamins, and feed protein.
Advances achieved in the second half of the 20th century. in the field of cytology, biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, created the prerequisites for controlling the elementary mechanisms of cell life, which contributed to the rapid development of biotechnology. Thanks to the selection of highly productive strains of microorganisms, the efficiency of biotechnological processes has increased tens and hundreds of times.

Biotechnology and its role in practical human activities

The peculiarity of biotechnology is that it combines the most advanced achievements of scientific and technological progress with the accumulated experience of the past, expressed in the use of natural sources to create products useful for humans. Any biotechnological process includes a number of stages: preparation of the object, its cultivation, isolation, purification, modification and use of the resulting products. The multi-stage and complexity of the process necessitates the involvement of a variety of specialists in its implementation: geneticists and molecular biologists, cytologists, biochemists, virologists, microbiologists and physiologists, process engineers, and biotechnological equipment designers.

Biotechnology in crop production

Tissue culture method

Biotechnology in animal husbandry

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in earthworms as a source of animal protein to balance the feed diet of animals, birds, fish, fur-bearing animals, as well as a protein supplement with therapeutic and prophylactic properties.
To increase animal productivity, complete feed is needed. The microbiological industry produces feed protein based on various microorganisms - bacteria, fungi, yeast, algae. As industrial tests have shown, the protein-rich biomass of single-celled organisms is absorbed with high efficiency by farm animals. Thus, 1 ton of feed yeast allows you to save 5-7 tons of grain. This is significant because 80% of the world's agricultural land is devoted to livestock and poultry feed production.

Cloning

The cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1996 by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh caused a stir around the world. Dolly was conceived from the mammary gland of a sheep that had long since died, and its cells were stored in liquid nitrogen. The technique by which Dolly was created is known as nuclear transfer, which means that the nucleus of an unfertilized egg is removed and a nucleus from a somatic cell is placed in its place. Of the 277 nuclear-transplanted eggs, only one developed into a relatively healthy animal. This method of reproduction is "asexual" because it does not require one of each sex to create a child. Wilmut's success became an international sensation.
In December 1998, it became known about successful attempts to clone cattle, when the Japanese I. Kato, T. Tani et al. managed to obtain 8 healthy calves after transferring 10 reconstructed embryos into the uterus of recipient cows.

Slide No. 10

New discoveries
in the field of medicine The successes of biotechnology are especially widely used in medicine. Currently, antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids, and hormones are produced using biosynthesis.
For example, hormones used to be typically obtained from animal organs and tissues. Even to obtain a small amount of a medicinal drug, a lot of starting material was required. Consequently, it was difficult to obtain the required amount of the drug and it was very expensive.
Thus, insulin, a hormone of the pancreas, is the main treatment for diabetes mellitus. This hormone must be administered to patients constantly. Producing it from the pancreas of a pig or cattle is difficult and expensive. In addition, animal insulin molecules differ from human insulin molecules, which often caused allergic reactions, especially in children. Currently, the biochemical production of human insulin has been established. A gene that synthesizes insulin was obtained. Using genetic engineering, this gene was introduced into a bacterial cell, which as a result acquired the ability to synthesize human insulin.
In addition to obtaining therapeutic agents, biotechnology allows for early diagnosis of infectious diseases and malignant neoplasms based on the use of antigen preparations and DNA/RNA samples.
With the help of new vaccine preparations it is possible to prevent infectious diseases.

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Stem cell method: cures or cripples?

Japanese scientists led by Professor Shinya Yamanaka from Kyoto University for the first time isolated stem cells from human skin, having previously introduced a set of certain genes into them. In their opinion, this can serve as an alternative to cloning and will make it possible to create drugs comparable to those obtained by cloning human embryos. American scientists almost simultaneously obtained similar results. But this does not mean that in a few months it will be possible to completely abandon embryo cloning and restore the body’s functionality using stem cells obtained from the patient’s skin.
First, specialists will have to make sure that the “skin” table cells are actually as multifunctional as they seem, that they can be implanted into various organs without fear for the patient’s health, and that they will work. The main concern is that such cells pose a risk for cancer development. Because the main danger of embryonic stem cells is that they are genetically unstable and have the ability to develop into some tumors after transplantation into the body.

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Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering techniques make it possible to isolate the necessary gene and introduce it into a new genetic environment in order to create an organism with new, predetermined characteristics.
Genetic engineering methods remain very complex and expensive. But already now, with their help, the industry produces such important medications as interferon, growth hormones, insulin, etc.
Selection of microorganisms is the most important area in biotechnology.
The development of bionics makes it possible to effectively apply biological methods to solve engineering problems and to use the experience of living nature in various fields of technology.

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Transgenic products:
pros and cons Several dozen edible transgenic plants have already been registered around the world. These are varieties of soybeans, rice and sugar beets that are resistant to herbicides; herbicide- and pest-resistant corn; potatoes resistant to the Colorado potato beetle; zucchini, almost seedless; tomatoes, bananas and melons with extended shelf life; rapeseed and soybeans with modified fatty acid composition; rice with a high content of vitamin A.
Genetically modified sources can be found in sausages, frankfurters, canned meat, dumplings, cheese, yoghurts, baby food, cereals, chocolate, and ice cream candies.

Slide No. 14

Genetically modified foods

List of products that may contain genetically modified products: Riboflavins E 101, E 101A, caramel E 150, xanthan E 415, lecithin E 322, E 153, E160d, E 161c, E 308q, E 471, E 472f, E 473, E 475, E 476b, E 477, E 479a, E 570, E 572, E 573, E 620, E 621, E 622, E 623, E 623, E 624, E 625.
Genetically modified products: chocolate Fruit Nut, Kit-kat, Milky Way, Twix; drinks: Nesquik, Coca-Cola, Sprite, Pepsi, Pringles chips, Danon yogurt.
Genetically modified products are produced by the following companies: Novartis, Monsanto - the new name of the Pharmacia company, which includes Coca-Cola, as well as Nestle, Danone, Hentz, Hipp, Uniliver ( Uniliver), United Biscuits, McDonald's restaurants.
There is not a single fact recorded in the world that a transgenic plant has caused harm to humans. But you shouldn’t let your guard down. It has not yet been clarified whether these plants will affect the offspring or pollute the environment.

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Prospects for the development of biotechnology

The method of vegetative propagation of agricultural plants by tissue culture is being increasingly used on an industrial basis. It allows not only to quickly propagate new promising plant varieties, but also to obtain virus-free planting material.
Biotechnology makes it possible to obtain environmentally friendly fuels through the bioprocessing of industrial and agricultural waste. For example, installations have been created that use bacteria to process manure and other organic waste. From 1 ton of manure, up to 500 m3 of biogas is obtained, which is equivalent to 350 liters of gasoline, while the quality of manure as a fertilizer improves.
Biotechnological developments are increasingly used in the extraction and processing of minerals.

SGBOU PA

"Sevastopol Medical College

named after Zhenya Deryugina"

Selection of microorganisms. Biotechnology

Teacher Smirnova Z. M.

Selection of microorganisms

Selection of microorganisms (bacteria, blue-green algae and fungi) is carried out in order to obtain productive strains and their subsequent use in industry, agriculture and medicine.

Strain– a population of microorganisms characterized by similar hereditary characteristics and certain characteristics, obtained as a result of artificial selection.

Methods for selection of microorganisms

Artificial

Revealing

selection:

productive

by growth rate;
by productivity;
by color, etc.

strain

Induced

(artificial)

mutagenesis

Features of microorganisms

The bacterial genome is haploid; any mutations appear already in the first generation.

The genetic apparatus of bacteria is represented by one

chromosome (1n) - a giant circular DNA molecule and small circular DNA molecules - plasmids.

The very high reproduction rate ensures that there is an unlimited amount of material to work with.

Plasmids

Nucleoid with a genophore

Microbiological synthesis

Microbiological synthesis is an industrial method for obtaining chemical compounds and products (for example, proteins, antibiotics, vitamins), carried out due to the vital activity of microbial cells.

Microorganisms serve as an important source of protein, which they synthesize 10–100 thousand times faster than animals.

So, a 400-kilogram cow produces 400 grams of protein per day, and 400 kilograms of bacteria produces 40 thousand tons.

Selection results

microorganisms

Selection results

microorganisms

The productivity of penicillium fungus strains has been increased

1000 times.

Using microbiological synthesis, antibiotics, amino acids, proteins, hormones, enzymes, vitamins and much more are obtained.
Microbiological industry products are used

in baking, brewing, winemaking, cooking many dairy products.

Microorganisms are used for biological wastewater treatment and soil quality improvement.
Methods have been developed for obtaining manganese, copper, chromium during the development of dumps of old mines using bacteria, where conventional extraction methods are not economically viable.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the production of human products and materials using living organisms, cultured cells and biological processes.

Biotechnology methods

Chromosome engineering

Cell engineering

Genetic Engineering

Microbiological synthesis

(selection

microorganisms)

The development of biotechnology is associated with solving problems of providing the population with food, mineral resources and energy (biogas), environmental protection (biological water purification), etc.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology objects:

viruses,
bacteria,

mushrooms,
cells and tissues of plants, animals and humans.

They are grown on nutrient media in bioreactor-fermenters.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a set of techniques that allows you to isolate the desired gene from the genome of one organism and introduce it

into the genome of another organism.

Two directions are being successfully implemented:

Transplantation of natural genes into the DNA of bacteria or fungi;

Embedding artificially created genes carrying specified information into plasmids.

Currently, the main objects of biotechnology are prokaryotes.

Genetic Engineering

Plants and animals in whose genome “foreign” genes are introduced are called transgenic,

bacteria and fungi – transformed ,

Transduction is the transfer of a gene from one bacterium to another using bacteriophages.

A classic target of genetic engineering is Escherichia coli.

Genetic Engineering

The process of creating transformed bacteria includes the following steps:

Restriction – “cutting out” the necessary genes. Conducted from

using special “genetic scissors”, enzymes –

restriction enzyme

2. Vector creation– a special genetic construct in which the intended gene will be introduced into the genome of another cell.

The gene is “sewn” into a vector – a plasmid, with the help of which the gene is introduced into the bacterium. “Linking in” is carried out using another group of enzymes – ligases.

3. Transformation – introduction of the vector into the bacterium.

4. Screening – selection of those bacteria in which the introduced genes work successfully.

5. Cloning transformed bacteria.

The process of creating transformed bacteria

Artificial DNA primer for the synthesis of complementary DNA (cDNA)

Isolation of mRNA

Cells that produce the required protein

mRNA

Restriction

Hybridization

cDNA synthesis

DNA-RNA hybrid

Single strand cDNA

RNA removal

Synthesis of second strand cDNA

Extrachromosomal DNA (plasmid)

Plasmid cutting

Double-stranded cDNA – gene for the required protein

Cross-linking with DNA ligase

Bacteria

Cloning

Colonies of bacteria

Recombinant plasmid

Embedding

into a bacterium

Selecting the required

squirrel

Transformation

(vector)

The process of creating transformed bacteria:

From eukaryotic cells, for example, human pancreatic cells, the mRNA product of the desired gene is isolated and, using the enzyme reverse transcriptase (revertase) - an enzyme found in RNA-containing viruses, a DNA strand complementary to it is synthesized.

A hybrid DNA-RNA molecule is formed.
The mRNA is removed by hydrolysis.
The remaining DNA strand is replicated using DNA polymerase.
The resulting DNA double helix consists only of transcribed parts of the gene and does not contain introns. It's called complementary DNA (cDNA)
Creation of a vector - a genetic construct containing the targeted gene will be inserted into the genome of another cell. Basis for creating the vector are plasmids.

The gene is inserted into a plasmid using enzymes called ligases.
Transformation is the introduction of a vector (plasmid) into a bacterium.
Bacterial cells acquire the ability to synthesize proteins encoded by the desired gene.

Achievements of genetic engineering

More than 350 drugs and vaccines developed using

biotechnologies, are widely used in medicine, for example:

- somatotropin – growth hormone, used in the treatment of dwarfism;

- insulin is a pancreatic hormone used for treatment

diabetes mellitus;

- interferon is an antiviral drug used to treat

some forms of cancer;

Creation of genetically modified plants. The leader among GMO plants is soybean - a cheap source of oil and protein;

- the nitrogen fixation gene was transferred to the genotype of valuable agricultural plants;

Production of transgenic plants with the bt gene carrying resistance to insects

The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces endotoxin, which is toxic to insects and harmless to mammals.

This one was isolated from a bacterium

gene and introduced it into a plasmid soil bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

This bacterium was infected plant tissue,

grown on nutritious

environment.

Transgenic plants created using agrobacteria

Dicotyledonous plants:

nightshades (potatoes, tomatoes), legumes (soybeans), cruciferous vegetables

(cabbage, radishes, rapeseed), etc.

Monocots:

cereals,

banana

The first transgenic product (tomatoes) entered the market in 1994.

Today, more than 150 varieties of GM plants are approved in the world

to industrial production.

Results of genetic modification:

Herbicide resistance;
Resistance to diseases and pests;
Changes in plant morphology;
Changes in the size, shape and number of fruits;
Increasing the efficiency of photosynthesis;
Resistance to climatic factors and soil salinity.

Chromosome engineering

Chromosome engineering is a set of techniques that allow manipulation of chromosomes.

One group of methods is based on the introduction into the genotype of a plant organism of a pair of foreign homologous chromosomes, which control the development of the desired characteristics ( augmented lines ),

or replacement of one pair of homologous chromosomes with another ( replaced lines ).

In the substituted and supplemented lines obtained in this way, traits are collected that bring the plants closer to the “ideal variety.”

Chromosome engineering.

Haploid method

based on the cultivation of haploid plants followed by chromosome doubling.

For example, haploid plants containing 10 chromosomes are grown from corn pollen grains ( n = 10), then the chromosomes are doubled and diploid ones are obtained ( n = 20), fully homozygous plants in just 2–3 years instead of 6–8 years of inbreeding.

This also includes the method of obtaining polyploid plants.

Cell engineering

Cellular engineering is the construction of a new type of cells based on their cultivation, hybridization and reconstruction.

Cell engineering methods

Cultivation –

Cloning (reconstruction) – methods of introducing individual cellular organelles, nucleus, cytoplasm into a somatic cell (partial hybridization)

method of preserving (in vitro) and growing cells, tissues, small organs or their parts in special nutrient media

Hybridization – method for producing hybrids of somatic cells of unrelated and phylogenetically distant species

Cultivation

Cell and tissue culture method - growing pieces of organs, tissues or individual cells outside the body under artificial conditions;

Stages of growing plants from cells:

Separating cells from each other and placing them in a nutrient medium.
Intensive reproduction and development of cells and the appearance of callus.
Placing the callus on another nutrient medium and forming a shoot.
Transplanting a new shoot into the soil.

For example, growing ginseng under artificial conditions takes 6 weeks, on plantations – 6 years, in the natural environment – 50 years.

Hybridization

Sowing on a selective medium, on which you can survive only if you have a certain human gene (for example, gene A)

merger

Human cell

Mouse cage

During cell division in a hybrid cell, all human chromosomes are lost except one (for example, No. 17)

The cells survived, which means the gene A lies on the chromosome 17

Hybrid cell (heterokaryon)

Somatic cell hybridization method

Under certain conditions, two different cells merge

into one hybrid containing both genomes of the united cells.

Hybrids between tumor cells and lymphocytes (hybridomas)

capable of dividing indefinitely (i.e. they are “immortal”), like

cancer cells and, like lymphocytes, can produce antibodies.

Such antibodies are used for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes.

Cloning (reconstruction) scheme

Cloning - precise reproduction of any object. Objects obtained as a result of cloning are called clones (see Animal Breeding).

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Traditional selection of microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) is based on experimental mutagenesis and selection of the most productive strains. But here too there are some peculiarities. The bacterial genome is haploid; any mutations appear already in the first generation. Although the probability of a natural mutation occurring in microorganisms is the same as in all other organisms (1 mutation per 1 million individuals for each gene), the very high intensity of reproduction makes it possible to find a useful mutation for the gene of interest to the researcher.

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As a result of artificial mutagenesis and selection, the productivity of penicillium fungus strains was increased by more than 1000 times. Products of the microbiological industry are used in baking, brewing, winemaking, and the preparation of many dairy products. With the help of the microbiological industry, antibiotics, amino acids, proteins, hormones, various enzymes, vitamins and much more are produced.

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Microorganisms are used for biological wastewater treatment and soil quality improvement. Currently, methods have been developed for the production of manganese, copper, and chromium by developing waste dumps of old mines using bacteria, where conventional mining methods are not economically viable.

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Biotechnology The use of living organisms and their biological processes in the production of substances necessary for humans. Objects of biotechnology are bacteria, fungi, cells of plant and animal tissues. They are grown on nutrient media in special bioreactors.

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The latest methods of selection of microorganisms, plants and animals are cellular, chromosomal and genetic engineering.

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Genetic engineering Genetic engineering is a set of techniques that make it possible to isolate the desired gene from the genome of one organism and introduce it into the genome of another organism. Plants and animals in whose genome “foreign” genes are introduced are called transgenic, bacteria and fungi are called transformed. A traditional target of genetic engineering is Escherichia coli, a bacterium that lives in the human intestine. It is with its help that growth hormone is obtained - somatotropin, the hormone insulin, which was previously obtained from the pancreas of cows and pigs, and the protein interferon, which helps cope with viral infection.

Slide 9

The process of creating transformed bacteria includes the following stages: Restriction - “cutting out” the desired genes. It is carried out using special “genetic scissors”, restriction enzymes. Creation of a vector - a special genetic construct in which the intended gene will be introduced into the genome of another cell. The basis for creating a vector are plasmids. The gene is fused into the plasmid using another group of enzymes - ligases. The vector must contain everything necessary to control the operation of this gene - a promoter, terminator, operator gene and regulator gene, as well as marker genes that give the recipient cell new properties that make it possible to distinguish this cell from the original cells. Transformation is the introduction of a vector into a bacterium. Screening is the selection of those bacteria in which the introduced genes work successfully. Cloning of transformed bacteria.

10 slide

Formation of recombinant plasmids: 1 - cell with the original plasmid 2 - isolated plasmid 3 - creation of a vector 4 - recombinant plasmid (vector) 5 - cell with a recombinant plasmid

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Eukaryotic genes, unlike prokaryotic genes, have a mosaic structure (exons, introns). In bacterial cells there is no processing, and translation in time and space is not separated from transcription. In this regard, it is more effective to use artificially synthesized genes for transplantation. The template for this synthesis is mRNA. With the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase, a DNA strand is first synthesized on this mRNA. Then the second strand is completed on it using DNA polymerase.

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Chromosomal engineering Chromosomal engineering is a set of techniques that allow manipulation of chromosomes. One group of methods is based on the introduction into the genotype of a plant organism of a pair of foreign homologous chromosomes that control the development of the desired characteristics (augmented lines), or the replacement of one pair of homologous chromosomes with another (replaced lines). In the substituted and supplemented lines obtained in this way, traits are collected that bring the plants closer to the “ideal variety.”

Slide 13

The haploid method is based on growing haploid plants and then doubling the chromosomes. For example, haploid plants containing 10 chromosomes (n = 10) are grown from corn pollen grains, then the chromosomes are doubled to produce diploid (n = 20), fully homozygous plants in just 2–3 years instead of 6–8 years of inbreeding. This also includes the method of obtaining polyploid plants.

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The latest methods of selection of microorganisms, plants and animals are cellular, chromosomal and genetic engineering.

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Formation of recombinant plasmids: 1 - cell with the original plasmid 2 - isolated plasmid 3 - creation of a vector 4 - recombinant plasmid (vector) 5 - cell with a recombinant plasmid

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Genetic engineering Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and their biological processes in the production of substances necessary for humans. Objects of biotechnology are bacteria, fungi, cells of plant and animal tissues. They are grown on nutrient media in special bioreactors. The latest methods of selection of microorganisms, plants and animals are cellular, chromosomal and genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is based on isolating a desired gene from the genome of one organism and introducing it into the genome of another organism.

Genes are “cut out” using special “genetic scissors”, restriction enzymes, then the gene is “sewn” into a plasmid vector, with the help of which the gene is introduced into the bacterium. “Linking” is carried out using another group of ligase enzymes. Moreover, the vector must contain everything necessary to control the operation of this gene: a promoter, a terminator, an operator gene and a gene regulator. In addition, the vector must contain marker genes that give the recipient cell new properties that make it possible to distinguish this cell from the original cells. Genetic Engineering

Then the vector is introduced into the bacterium, and at the last stage those bacteria in which the introduced genes work successfully are selected. A favorite target of genetic engineers is E. coli, a bacterium that lives in the human intestine. It is with its help that the growth hormone somatotropin is obtained, the hormone insulin, which was previously obtained from the pancreas of cows and pigs, and the protein interferon, which helps cope with viral infection. Genetic Engineering

The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces endotoxin, which destroys the stomach of insects and is completely harmless to mammals. This gene was isolated from the bacterium and introduced into the plasmid of the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Pieces of plant tissue grown in a nutrient medium were infected with this bacterium. Genetic Engineering

After some time, plasmids carrying the toxin protein gene entered plant cells and the gene was integrated into the plant DNA. Then full-fledged plants were grown from these pieces. Caterpillars of insect pests died on this plant. Using the described method, forms of potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and rapeseed that are resistant to various pests have now been obtained. Genetic Engineering

Selection of microorganisms Molecular biologists have transferred a frost resistance gene to grapes from a wild relative of cabbage, broccoli. Obtaining a frost-resistant variety took only a year (instead of 30 years). Transgenic plants are grown in many countries around the world. The United States, Argentina and China rank first in terms of area under transgenic plants. Most of the land is occupied by transgenic soybeans, corn, cotton, canola and potatoes.

Let's summarize: The main methods of traditional selection: Hybridization (crossing) and selection. Basic methods of genetic engineering: Isolating the desired gene from the genome of one organism and introducing it into the genome of another organism. Transgenic organisms: Organisms into which “foreign” genes have been introduced. What are the enzymes that cut and stitch genes called? “Cutting out” genes is carried out using restriction enzymes, “sewing in” is carried out using ligases. What is a vector? A plasmid with which genes are introduced into the genome of another organism. What should a vector contain? Everything necessary to control the operation of this gene: promoter, terminator, gene -operator and gene-regulator. In addition, the vector must contain marker genes that give the recipient cell new properties that make it possible to distinguish this cell from the original cells. How were plants that cannot eat insects isolated from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis? the stomach of insects and introduced it into the plasmid of a soil bacterium. Pieces of plant tissue grown on a nutrient medium were infected with this bacterium, and full-fledged plants were grown from them.

Chromosome engineering Methods of chromosome engineering. Effectively used in plant breeding. 1. We are already familiar with the production of polyploid plants as a result of a multiple increase in chromosomes. 2. The method of substituted lines is based on the replacement of one pair of homologous chromosomes with another. 3. The method of augmented lines is based on the introduction into the genotype of a plant organism of a pair of foreign homologous chromosomes that control the development of the desired characteristics. Using these methods, traits are collected from plants that lead to the creation of an “ideal variety.” 4.The haploid method is promising, based on growing haploid plants with subsequent doubling of chromosomes. For example, haploid plants containing 10 chromosomes are grown from corn pollen grains, then the chromosomes are doubled and diploid (10 pairs of chromosomes), completely homozygous plants are obtained in just 2-3 years instead of 6-8 years of inbreeding.

Cell engineering methods involve the cultivation of individual cells in nutrient media, where they form cell cultures. It turned out that the cells of plants and animals placed in a nutrient medium containing all the substances necessary for life are able to divide. Plant cells also have the property of totipotency, that is, under certain conditions they are able to form a full-fledged plant. Cell engineering

Work continues on cell hybridization and production of hybridomas. For example, a method for hybridizing protoplasts of somatic cells has been developed. Cell membranes are removed and protoplasts of cells of organisms belonging to different types of potatoes and tomatoes, apples and cherries are merged. It is promising to create hybridomas, in which lymphocytes that form antibodies are hybridized with cancer cells. As a result, hybridomas produce antibodies like lymphocytes and are “immortal” like cancer cells. Cell engineering

An interesting method is the transplantation of somatic cell nuclei into eggs. In this way, it is possible to clone animals, obtaining genetic copies from one organism. Currently, cloned frogs have been obtained, and the first results of cloning mammals have been obtained. Cell engineering

Repetition. Key terms of the topic: What is the method of substituted lines based on: The replacement of one pair of homologous chromosomes with another. What is the method of augmented lines based on: The introduction into the genotype of a pair of homologous chromosomes with the desired characteristics. What is the haploid method based on: Growing haploid plants with subsequent doubling of chromosomes. What is the method of obtaining polyploids based on: An increase in the chromosome set, a multiple of the haploid one. Colchicine is used. What is totipotency? Plant cells, under certain conditions, are capable of forming a full-fledged plant. How can cell cultures be used? From individual cells you can grow full-fledged plants.

Repetition. Key terms of the topic: How is the method of creating hybridomas used? Hybridization of cells of different types is carried out, for example, lymphocytes that form antibodies, with cancer cells. As a result, hybridomas produce antibodies like lymphocytes and are “immortal” like cancer cells. How is animal cloning done? The nucleus of a somatic cell is transplanted into an egg from which the nucleus has previously been removed. The egg is activated and, after the start of crushing, is transplanted into the uterus of the surrogate mother. How can you get chimeric animals? Fusion of embryos at early stages is possible. In this way, chimeric mice were obtained by merging the embryos of white and black mice, and a chimeric sheep-goat animal.