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Methods of scientific knowledge. Presentation on the topic "methods and forms of scientific knowledge" Forms of scientific knowledge presentation

Tasks and stages scientific activity Tasks:
getting a new
knowledge
new message
knowledge
Stages:
commission
discoveries
registration
discoveries

Types of scientific activity

Scientific research
approbation of results
training of scientists
certification of scientists

Science goals:

description
explanation
forecast

Science system

natural
public (social,
Humanities)
technical
fundamental
applied

Principles of Science:

epistemological
methodological
axiological

Structure of scientific knowledge

Scientific
paradigm
Scientific picture of the world
Type of scientific rationality

Paradigm -

Paradigm (Greek - example, sample) -
theory or model
setting problems,
accepted as
sample solution
research task
"disciplinary
matrix "(T. Kuhn)
theoretical
standards
methodological
standards
value criteria
worldview
installations

Scientific picture of the world

Holistic image
object of scientific
research
Theory
Assumptions
Private
theoretical
models

Theory is a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of an object

Theory is a form of scientific knowledge that gives
holistic view of
regularities and essential
object links
empirical basis
theoretical background
logics
set of statements with their
evidence

Concept -

The concept of a way of understanding, interpretation
object, phenomenon, main
point of view on the subject
guiding idea

Model - an idealized object (their totality and interconnection), correlated with the judgments of a theory or concept

Doctrine is a stable system of views, ideas, principles, which is characterized by a unified approach to the phenomena being studied.

methodology
content
policy provisions

Types of scientific rationality

The object of scientific knowledge
Cognitive abilities
subject
Cognitive attitude of the subject to
object
scientific method
The result of scientific knowledge

Historical types of scientific rationality

classical
postclassical
1) non-classical
agrarian society
(traditional)
Industrial
society (modern)
post-industrial
society (postmodern)
2)
post-non-classical

THE PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE
SUBJECT
AN OBJECT

Classical type of scientific rationality

THE PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE
SUBJECT
AN OBJECT

Non-classical type of scientific rationality

THE PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE
SUBJECT
AN OBJECT

Post-nonclassical type of scientific rationality

THE PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE
SUBJECT
AN OBJECT

Models for the development of scientific knowledge

cumulative model
critical rationalism (Karl Popper)
theory of scientific revolutions (Thomas Kuhn)
methodological falsificationism
(Imre Lakatos)
epistemological anarchism
(Paul Feyerabend)
social (sociological) realism
(Randall Collins)

Critical rationalism

Karl Popper (1902-1994)
"Logic and the growth of scientific
knowledge" (1934)

Refutation of scientific knowledge

Scientific knowledge is always presumptive
The growth of knowledge occurs rationally, on
basis of refutation (falsification)
existing theories:

Theory of scientific revolutions (paradigm model)

Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996)
"The structure of scientific
revolutions" (1963)

Change of paradigms (according to T. Kuhn)

Scientific
the revolution
Normal
the science
extraordinary
the science

Methodological falsificationism

Imre Lakatos (1922-1974)
"Falsification and
research methodology
programs" (1970)

Structure of the research program

hard core
Protective belt
Positive
(positive)
heuristic
Negative
heuristic

Epistemological anarchism

Paul Feyerabend
(1924-1994)
"Against the method:
anarchist essay
theory of knowledge"
(1974)

Principles of epistemological anarchism

The principle of proliferation (reproduction)
theories
Principle of incommensurability of theories
Methodological pluralism

Social (sociological) realism

Randall Collins (b. 1941)
"Sociology of philosophies:
global theory
intellectual
changes" (1998)

Theory of intelligent networks

Horizontal and vertical
smart grids
Organizational bases and interactive
rituals
Exchange of cultural capital and
emotional energy
Competition for attention space
intellectual reputation
Science develops through
smart grid reorganization

Results of scientific activity

new knowledge
experimental
samples
final
intermediate
side effects

Principles for determining the scientific character of a hypothesis

logical
critical
positivism
rationalism
(verifiable) (falsifiable)
Rudolf Carnap
(1891-1970)
Karl Popper
(1902-1994)

Ways and methods for evaluating scientific activity

expert review
(peer-reviewed)
citation index
(citation index, CI, IC;
h-index, h-index)
journal impact factor
(impact factor, IF)

IC and IF databases

Science Citation Index (SCI)
Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI, social
Sciences)
Arts and Humanities Citation Index (AHCI, arts and
humanitarian sciences)
Scopus (Elsevier project)
Euro-Factor (EU)
Google Scholar
Web of Science (Thomson Scientific project)
Russian Science Citation Index (RSCI,
project of the Russian Scientific Electronic Library
http://elibrary.ru)

promote awareness of the forms and methods of scientific knowledge;
continue acquaintance with features of cognitive activity;
realize complex search, systematization and interpretation information on a specific topic from original non-adapted texts (philosophical, scientific, legal, political, journalistic);
contribute to the development of the civic position of students.

Know: the essence and features of scientific knowledge, to get acquainted with the main features of the methodology of scientific thinking, methods of scientific knowledge.
Be able to: carry out a comprehensive search, systematization of social information on the topic, compare, analyze, draw conclusions.

scientific theory;
empirical law;
hypothesis;
scientific experiment;
modeling;
scientific revolution;
differentiation;
integration.

Learning new material

The main features of the methodology of scientific thinking.
Differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge.

Remember. How are sensual and rational connected in the cognitive activity of people? What knowledge is considered true? What is the objectivity of truth? What laws of the development of nature, discovered by scientists, did you get acquainted with in the lessons of physics, biology?

Features of scientific knowledge

Find the extra word

"Don't dig a hole for someone else - you yourself will fall into it"
"Aliens from other planets live among us"
"Each person has a certain set of genes - carriers of heredity"
“Everyone strives for material wealth”
"Each person has their own aura"

Read the paragraph "Features of scientific knowledge" on page 248 and write down the features

Features of scientific knowledge

Receipt new for humanity knowledge.

Objectivity acquired knowledge

Usage special methods cognitive activity.

Reproducibility the result obtained under the same conditions, verifiability knowledge.
Rationality (consistency, evidence, consistency).

The development of the conceptual apparatus ( terminology ).

Versatility .

How did you do it in your notebooks? Check!

Weight substances, entered into a chemical reaction, is equal to mass substances, formed as a result of the reaction

Scientific knowledge - a type of cognitive activity aimed at obtaining objective knowledge about nature, society and thinking.

Scientific knowledge - knowledge aimed at discovering objective laws based on the generalization of real facts in their interconnection.

A type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge about nature, man and society.

"Science as knowledge exists in itself -" knowledge for the sake of knowledge " Is it a myth or reality?

Two levels of scientific knowledge

empirical knowledge – the process of accumulation and fixation experienced data; the study of real-life, sensually perceived objects.

Theoretical knowledge -

the main task - description of objects and phenomena, accumulation of knowledge.

the process of discovering laws and creating scientific theories; essential indirect knowledge; dealing with ideal objects.

the main task –

Form of acquired knowledge:

explanation of the phenomena under study.

scientific fact
empirical law

Form of acquired knowledge:

Hypothesis
Law
Theory

Methods of empirical knowledge

Methods of theoretical knowledge

Observation – purposeful the study of individual objects and phenomena, during which knowledge is obtained about the external properties and features of the object under study

Hypothesis It's a scientific hypothesis that needs to be tested.

Measurement- comparison of objects according to some common properties and sides.

Theory- a holistic display of regular and essential connections of a certain area of reality

Description– fixing information about objects using language tools.

Modeling- reproduction of the characteristics of some object on another object (model), specially created for their study.

Experiment– observation in specially created and controlled conditions

Analysis -

Synthesis -

Induction -

Deduction -

Analogy -

DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

DIFFERENTIATION(from lat. differentia - difference) means division, dismemberment of the whole into parts, forms, etc.

INTEGRATION(from lat. integration - recovery) fixes the reverse process - the convergence and connection of various parts, processes, phenomena.

The integration of scientific knowledge, according to experts, is hindered lack of unifying scientific ideas; the rapid growth of specialized scientific knowledge, which does not allow scientists to become specialists in a number of scientific disciplines (in other words, the age of encyclopedists has irrevocably passed).

HOW SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS HAPPEN

A striking example of such a revolution is the change in the scientific picture of the world that has taken place at the beginning of the 20th century. The studies of A. Einstein, M. Planck and other prominent scientists radically changed the ideas about space, time, matter. And yet, having significantly enriched them, the physics of the last century did not cancel the previous ideas, but pointed to the area within which they are valid.

Albert Einstein, (03/14/1879 - 04/18/1955) - a great physicist; one of the founders of modern physical theory; creator of the Special and General Theories of Relativity

Max Planck (1858-1947) (Max Karl Ernest Ludwig) is a German physicist, one of the founders of quantum theory, a foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1913) and an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).

far from professional scientific activity, but constantly uses the fruits of science, embodied in the mass of modern things (domestic comfort);
the authority of science, methodology (principles, approaches) of scientific thinking is being strengthened more and more;
At the same time, there are also supporters of an extra-scientific picture of the world: a focus on practical use, an interest in the mysterious and miraculous.

What are the main differences between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge?
What characterizes the empirical level of scientific knowledge?
What is inherent in the theoretical level of science?
Compare the levels and methods of scientific knowledge.
What is the difference between experiment and observation?
What is the role of a hypothesis in scientific knowledge?
Give examples of scientific modeling.
What is the differentiation of scientific knowledge? What are its reasons?
What makes it difficult to integrate scientific knowledge into modern conditions?
How is the scientific revolution developing?

“ Everyday observations convince us that all bodies are attracted to the Earth. But bodies are attracted not only to the Earth, but also to each other. This can be verified in the following experiment. (Following is a description of the experiment.)

In 1667, analyzing the materials of astronomical observations, Newton applied the laws of dynamics formulated by him to the motion of the moon. He knew that the Moon revolved around the Earth in an almost circular orbit. But movement along a circular orbit is possible only when some force acts on the body, imparting centripetal acceleration to it ... Newton suggested that this force is the force of mutual attraction of the Moon and the Earth. Having produced necessary calculations, he came to the conclusion that the force of mutual attraction of the Moon and the Earth can be calculated by the formula (the formula is given) ...

Newton did not stop there, but suggested that, according to the formula he had obtained, it was possible to calculate the force of attraction of any bodies if their dimensions were small compared to the distance between them. Therefore, the law he discovered was called the law of universal gravitation ...

Two bodies (considered as material points) are attracted to each other along the straight line connecting them, with forces directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

C1. Give three examples of non-scientific and scientific forms of knowledge.

C2. Among the reasons that determine the relative nature of the truths revealed in cognition, the limited cognitive capabilities of a person are most often called: not everything is accessible to our perception, has its own limits and rational knowledge.

What else gives our conclusions and judgments about the world a relative character? Specify three such "limiters".

C3. Name three forms of rational cognition.

What have you learned?
How?
What have you learned?
What difficulties did you experience?
Was the lesson interesting?

summary of other presentations

"Spiritual and moral sphere" - What word is missing in the diagram. Religion forms. elite culture. Educational levels of the education system of the Russian Federation. Culture (in narrow senses). The main range of questions tested in the framework of the exam. Are the following statements about the media correct? Find media examples in the list below. The problem of social responsibility of scientists has become especially relevant. Spiritual and moral sphere. Art, its forms and main directions.

"Development of scientific and technological progress" - Many generations of scientists. Electromagnetic field. Astronomy. Electromagnetic nature of the world. The unity of the structure of matter. Unity of the world. primary particles. Biology. Particles of matter. James Clerk Maxwell. fundamental laws. Mechanical picture of the world. NTR and NTP. Technics. Physics and scientific and technological revolution. Technical progress. The meaning of physics. Physics.

"Material and spiritual culture" - Translated from Latin, the term "culture" means "cultivation", "processing". Lathe and a painting, for example, serve different purposes. Culture is constantly changing, is in dynamics, in development. Man in the world of culture. Western culture. Spiritual. Material. Eastern culture. Culture. What is culture? The role of culture in our life. Outside of culture, neither a person nor society can live.

"Levels of scientific knowledge" - Scientific theory. theoretical level. Experiment. empirical level. Description. Functions of scientific knowledge. Differences from ordinary knowledge. The science. Hypothesis. Scientific knowledge. Levels of scientific knowledge. Modeling. observation.

"Worldview and Cognition" - Development of projective thinking skills. Myth is a lie. Myth as legend. Truth in the representation of the Russian language and culture. The paths of science. The objectives of the elective course. Myth is like a game. Associations. Myth yesterday and today. Faith and miracles. Educational and thematic planning. Comparative analysis. Spirit and spirituality. The poetry of truth and the truth of poetry. Truth and myth. Myth as metaphor. Myth is like life. Types of linguistic and cultural tasks.

"Schopenhauer" - Fluent in German. The philosopher wrote nine works. He gravitated toward German romanticism. Analysis of the human will. Arthur Schopenhauer. The main philosophical work. Philosopher of pessimism. I neglected the elementary goods. Mention about. Schopenhauer was a misogynist.

Literature: Bakhtin M. Understanding and text / / Reader in philosophy: Tutorial. Ed. 2nd, revised and additional. / Comp. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. M: Gardarika, S Weber M. Science as a vocation and profession. Science as a vocation and profession. Kanke V.A. Basic philosophical directions and concepts of science. Results of the XX century. Moscow: Logos, p. Carnap R., Hans H., Neurath O. Scientific worldview.Scientific worldview. Kuhn T. Structure of scientific revolutions. Moshkova G.Yu. Personal-psychological prerequisites for scientific creativity and their formation. Personal-psychological prerequisites for scientific creativity and their formation. Sadovnichiy V.A. Wisdom and knowledge in a globalizing world. Wisdom and knowledge in a globalizing world. Shulga E.N. Scientific discovery: a hermeneutic approach. Scientific discovery: a hermeneutic approach.

Science is a special area of human socio-historical activity aimed at producing, systematizing, storing the most accurate knowledge about the world, society and man. 4th century d.c.e. Stage II - the appearance in the XVI-XVII centuries. classical science, contributed to Newtonian mechanics, Cartesian principles, etc. Stage III - post-classical science of the XIX-beginning of XX centuries. based on quantum mechanics, theory of relativity, etc. Stage IV - the emergence of post-non-classical science in the II-nd half. 20th century associated with the processes of globalization, the doctrine of nonlinear systems, etc.

Thomas Kuhn, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, common features characterizing scientific discoveries. Based on them, he formulated the principle of scientific creativity: not every new idea- new, not every new creation is new, but only that which implements and approves a new paradigm.

Kazimir Malevich painted Black Square, thus starting a new paradigm in painting. A huge mass of black and red squares, parallelepipeds and other figures that appeared after Malevich are just a multiplication of the paradigm scheme discovered by him.

Each stage in the development of science has its own paradigm: Classical science is associated with the paradigm of mechanics, Laplace's determinism. Non-classical science is associated with the paradigm of relativity, discreteness, quantization, probability and complementarity. Post-nonclassical science is associated with the paradigm of self-organization and formation.

Specificity of scientific knowledge: Systematic, derivation of some provisions from others; the object of scientific and theoretical analysis is not the reality itself, but their mental counterparts - idealized objects; conscious control over the very procedure of cognition; the presence of clear concepts, the fixation of meaning and the development of a special scientific language; the rigor and objectivity of the revealed truths.

Empirical methods: Observation is a purposeful perception of objects, phenomena in their natural form, in immediate reality. Description - fixing information about objects by means of a natural or artificial language. Measurement is a comparison of objects according to some similar properties or sides. An experiment is a scientific experiment in which an object is placed in specially created, controlled conditions. Comparison is a simultaneous correlative study and evaluation of properties and features common to two or more objects.

Theoretical methods: Formalization is the construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality. Axiomatization is the construction of theories based on axioms-statements, the proof of which is not required. Hypothetical-deductive - the creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

1) Not every person can become a subject of scientific knowledge, but one who has undergone special specialized training necessary for research activities.

2) Scientific knowledge is specifically focused on the discovery of laws and phenomena that are still unknown. The knowledge obtained in this way is substantiated, systematically organized, expressed using an artificial language.

3) In scientific knowledge, a specialized language is used - in comparison with the language of everyday communication, it is characterized by a higher degree of unambiguity of words and expressions, greater compactness, accuracy and consistency of rules.

The specifics of scientific knowledge

4) Scientific knowledge involves the use of specialized tools: special material means (reagents, experimental facilities, control devices etc.), means of information processing and communication, vehicles, power plants, etc.

5) Scientific knowledge is regulated by a certain set of methods and other types of normative knowledge (principles, ideals, norms, etc.).

6) The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth.

7) Scientific knowledge is aimed at predicting future events, states and properties of the objects under study. Science strives to create a reserve of knowledge for future forms of practical exploration of the world.

The structure of scientific knowledge

Three main levels:

Empirical

Theoretical Metatheoretical

Specificity of empirical knowledge

Empirical research is directed at its core to the study of phenomena and the relationships between them.

Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object under study. The means of empirical research include means of observation, measurement and experiment (instruments, experimental setups, special equipment and premises, etc.).

The specifics of theoretical knowledge

At the level of theoretical knowledge, the essential connections of the object are singled out in their pure form. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws that this object obeys.

direct practical interaction with objects; object is studied indirectly. This is achieved by presenting the subject of research in the form of a system of abstract ideal objects, in which the phenomena and processes of interest to the researcher are presented in their pure form by excluding the real conditions for their existence (for example, a material point in mechanics, an absolutely rigid body in physics, an ideal gas in thermodynamics, almost all mathematical objects).

Specificity of metatheoretical knowledge

All the diversity of knowledge is united in integrity. This is ensured not only by the relationship between the metatheoretical foundations of science (scientific picture of the world, ideals and norms scientific research, philosophical foundations of science). The metatheoretical foundations of science act as a system-forming block of scientific knowledge.

Functions of the metatheoretical foundations of science:

Determination of the strategy of scientific research in a certain historical era, taking into account the dominant type of scientific rationality;

Systematization of existing scientific knowledge;

Ensuring the inclusion of scientific knowledge in the culture of the corresponding historical era.

Forms of empirical knowledge

Observation data- reflect the very presence of the objects under study, their properties, types of relationships with other objects in

providing for the statement of reliable, objective information. The transition from observation data to empirical fact involves the following operations:

Finding stable content in observational data;

The need to interpret the stable content revealed in the observations.

Forms of theoretical knowledge

A problem is a form of theoretical knowledge, the content of which is a contradictory situation in the field of scientific knowledge that needs to be solved.

A hypothesis is a form of theoretical knowledge containing a scientific assumption about the essential characteristics and deep necessary connections of the studied phenomena and processes.

Theory is a form of scientific knowledge containing generalizing abstract constructs and a set of concepts and laws that reproduce an object in the form of a structured set of idealized objects and their relations in a certain way.

Forms of metatheoretical knowledge

Scientific picture of the world- a form of scientific knowledge expressing the features of the systemic organization of the studied reality. It is formed as a result of the synthesis of knowledge obtained in various sciences, and contains general ideas about the world, developed at the appropriate stages of the development of science.

Ideals and norms of scientific research . They express the values and goals of science, answering the questions: why are certain cognitive actions needed, what type of knowledge should be obtained as a result, in what way to obtain this knowledge.

Philosophical foundations of science. They include philosophical ideas and principles that substantiate both the ideals and norms of science, and meaningful representations of the scientific picture of the world, and also ensure the inclusion of scientific knowledge in culture. It is primarily a representation

about general premises and general orientation

cognitive processes.