The Mauryan Empire (317-180 BC) was established at the end of the 4th century. BC e. legendary Chandragupta from the Mauryan dynasty and lasted about a century and a half. Ashoka (the name is translated from Sanskrit as “joyful”) (268–232 BC) is the third Indian emperor, the ruler of Magadha. He went down in history as an opponent of all violence, the patron of Buddhism, which he began to preach after long wars. In addition, Ashoka is believed to be the first emperor to enter a monastery.

Ashoka's empire occupied the territory of almost all of present-day India, Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan. Some contemporaries reported that Ashoka took the rightful throne from his older brothers, whom he apparently killed, but there is no reliable evidence for this version.

In 1837, the so-called inscriptions of Ashoka were discovered and deciphered - his royal decrees carved on stone pillars and rocks and which are the earliest monuments of Indian inscriptions.

Under the wise and tough ruler-reformer Ashoka, the ancient Indian state reached its peak of prosperity, Buddhism quickly spread over the vast lands of India. Ashoka's empire for about half a century was the international center of the world with well-established trade and cultural contacts. The culture of the state developed within the framework of the new religion, cave temples and Buddhist monasteries were carved into the rocks, decorated with stone and wooden sculptures of the deity.

The science and art of the Greek cities had a great influence on the culture of the Indian state. The Hellenistic influence is noticeable in the first images of the Buddha.

The Mauryan state, or the empire of Ashoka, lasted until the beginning of the 2nd century BC. BC e.

The state of Ashoka was the first ancient Indian large sovereign association, which absorbed the vast lands of the Ganges valley and adjacent territories. Civilization in India is unique in its own way: unlike other states of the East, there have almost never been social uprisings against the authorities. The foundations of this were formed during the existence of the Mauryan empire, when Buddhism, the first of the three world religions that developed later, developed and spread. A feature of the ancient Indian powers was also the presence of strong peasant communities, special varnas, later developed into castes, the absence of a free market and private property.

In the era of Ashoka, despite the spread of Buddhism to neighboring territories, there was an isolation of India from the rest of the world, which was also characteristic of other eastern states, such as Egypt, China and Japan.

At the origins of civilization

ancient india

Indian civilization occupies a special place in world history.

The oldest settlements in India date back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. There are almost no written sources, except for religious Sanskrit texts, and all information is the result of archaeological excavations. Scientists believe that the first Indians, who belonged to the Dravidian family of peoples, came to the Hindustan peninsula from the north and already in the 24th century. BC e. created developed cities with majestic buildings.

The most famous ancient Indian cities are Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Archaeologists have discovered brick buildings, a sewage system, and the remains of craft workshops. The ancient cities prospered, engaging in trade with Mesopotamia, but rather quickly disappeared from the face of the earth for reasons still unknown, perhaps due to the flooding of the Ganges.

The next stage of the ancient Indian civilization is closely connected with the settlement of the lands along the banks of the Ganges by the Indo-Aryans in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Aryans gradually penetrated into India from the northwest and quickly dissolved in the local environment. The new settlers developed various mystical cults with sacrifices and with a strong power of Brahmin priests. The life of the Indian society of this period is known from ancient legends, the Vedas and from the legendary literary works- Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Indo-Aryans at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. began to create proto-state associations headed by kshatriya leaders. The most ancient proto-state was Magadha, located in the Ganges valley (7th century BC). high place the society was occupied by priests who performed the most complex rituals and ceremonies that accompanied the entire life of the ancient Indian.

The ruler of each state did not have exclusive power, he reckoned with the opinion of the caste of priests and members of the council. Undesirable kings were overthrown and expelled from society. The first Indo-Aryan cities were built in the 9th century. BC e. and became the basis of the future mighty empire.

It was at the beginning of the first millennium A.D. e. Simultaneously with the appearance of the first cities of the Indo-Aryans, the future division into castes was born in Indian society, in which each person was strictly defined by his place and rights.

The proto-state Indian associations were neither strong nor long-term, apparently due to constant violent enmity with each other. And only in the IV century. the situation has changed.

The origins of the empire's caste system

The Dravidian tribes, conquered by the Aryan aliens, were the bearers of an ancient unique culture. At the same time, the Aryans considered themselves the highest race, and there was a huge gulf between them and the Dravidians.

The territory of India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. was inhabited, in addition to the Aryans and Dravidians, by various native tribes, among which were nomadic and sedentary.

The result of the interaction of all these peoples, very different in origin and culture, was the birth of a special system of castes. Scholars believe that castes were not invented by either the Aryans or the Dravidians. Most likely, this system was an attempt to create a complex organization to combine several different peoples into a whole. Castes are a unique phenomenon, exclusively Indian and progressive for that period of time.

Castes arose on the basis of the division of the entire population into Aryans and non-Aryans, while the latter were divided into Dravidians and the local population. It turned out that the Aryans created the upper class.

The word "arya" literally means "farmer". The Aryans were indeed for the most part farmers, whose occupation was considered one of the most noble.

The ancient Indian farmer was also a warrior, priest and merchant, which later laid the foundation for the division into several castes. In most countries of the world, conquered peoples were turned into dependent populations or even slaves. In Indian lands, this situation was softened by castes. Even before the advent of the Mauryan Empire, the entire Indian society was divided into vaishyas (farmers, artisans and merchants, kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), brahmins (priests and philosophers), and shudras (farm laborers from hired workers). At that time, the history of the caste was mobile, and it was easy to make the transition from one to the other.Later, as we know, this became impossible.

Birth of Buddhism

The earliest information about Buddhism, the earliest of the three world religions, dates back to the 6th century BC. BC e. The name of the religion was laid by its founder Siddhartha Gautama (623-544 BC), nicknamed the Buddha (Enlightened One). According to legend, Buddha was born into a royal family, married the princess Yashodhara, who gave birth to his son Rahula. After 29 years, the future founder of a great religion leaves the family and becomes a hermit for 6 years, then begins to read sermons to his students. The Buddha called on his supporters to know and understand the four sacred truths: the world is suffering; suffering comes from earthly passions and desires; liberation from suffering - in nirvana; the way to a righteous life is to renounce everything worldly.

Gradually spreading, Buddhism at an early stage becomes the ideology of the reform movement, which has its supporters even among some Brahmins. And yet, more often than not, the Brahmins did not want to accept the new religion, calling the Buddhists heretics and rebels.

The new teaching became popular among Indian society in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. due to the equalization of all its followers, in contrast to the caste system existing in society.

The rulers of the Mauryan dynasty supported the development of the new religion and made it the official cult of the state. In Buddhism, Chandragupta and especially Ashoka saw an ideology on the basis of which all the disparate Indian states and lands could unite.

Archaeologists have explored the unique evidence of Buddhism at the beginning of its spread. The earliest monuments - stupas (mounds over the remains of the Buddha) - are known in the Ganges valley and in the eastern part of modern Afghanistan. Stupas eventually began to be supplemented with stone structures and turned into centers that became the basis of Buddhist monasteries.

Ashoka not only accepted Buddhism, but tried with all his might to spread it in a non-violent way to his own possessions and neighboring territories.

Born in a distant ancient Indian society, Buddhism captured the minds and souls of many millions of people on the planet for many centuries.

Birth of an empire

Chandragupta

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. 16 independent state formations were located in the Ganges valley. In most powers, a hereditary monarchy was established, in some - an aristocracy along the Greek lines.

In the IV century. The most powerful state of Northern India is the Nand state, which existed for several centuries and was supported by the garrisons of Alexander the Great until his death. After that, Chandragupta, the ruler of the state of Magadha, who created a large empire, received power in North India. Sources describe the origin of the first king of the dynasty in different ways, but agree on one thing: the ruler of the new state devoted a lot of effort to expanding its borders. The state created by the hands of Chandragupta became the first major state association in Hindustan. The ancient Indian ruler tried to enlist the support of Alexander the Great to overthrow the hostile dynasty, but the two great rulers could not agree and parted far from friendly.

According to the legend, Chandragupta not only conquered territories by military force, but also received them in exchange. This happened in 303 BC. e., when the king bartered from the Seleucids for 500 war elephants the lands located to the west of India. In addition, the wise ruler secured his good relations with the neighboring power by marrying the daughter of Seleucus.

In all affairs of state, Chandragupta was assisted by his closest friend, minister and adviser, the Brahmin Chanakya. Both statesmen were expelled at one time by the ruling Nanda dynasty from the powerful kingdom of Magadha. Together they put forward the slogan of the national unity of the Indian lands and created a huge empire.

Chanakya recorded in detail all the events of that era in the book "The Science of state structure", which has come down to our days. Chanakya, proud and vengeful, intelligent and resourceful, brought to our days the features of the reign of Chandragupta and the formation of the great Mauryan empire, described trade and diplomatic relations and state administration.

Chandragupta made Pataliputra the capital of the new state and contributed to its prosperity in every possible way. Sources, primarily Greek, enthusiastically described the magnificence of the palaces and temples of the city, reported that the ruler had great respect for science and art. Flourished under Chandragupta and the ancient university in Taxila. Graduating was considered an honor. It is known that the ill Buddha asked to bring to him a doctor who graduated from this particular university. On the territory of the Mauryan Empire, on the basis of a pre-Buddhist university, a center of Brahmin science was created, which later turned into the center of Buddhism in the northwestern province of the empire.

Bindusara. The rise of a great power

The second ruler of the Indian state was the son of Chandragupta - Bindusara. The new king is better known for his good relations with the Greek policies. Ambassadors from Ptolemy from Egypt and from Antiochus, son and heir to the throne of Seleucus Nicator from Western Asia, arrived at the court of the Indian ruler. Bindusara, the second representative of the Mauryan dynasty, managed to significantly expand the borders of the state, capturing the territories of the entire Hindustan and part of the lands of Afghanistan.

Chandragupta's son had a large and disciplined army, consisting of four large units - infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants.

Bindusara continued to consolidate centralized power, and the empire became a large autocratic state. The emperor at the coronation took an oath to serve the people.

Cities and rural communities cherished the autonomy granted to them, but the influence of the central government affected them too.

The state sought to maintain external and internal peace so that taxes could be easily collected. Sources report the first hospitals established in the state, and assistance to widows, orphans and the sick. During the period of famine, the state supported the rural population by distributing food stored in special warehouses.

It is believed that from this division of the ancient Indian army into four parts, the game of chess was born, originally called Chaturanga (four-membered). Al-Biruni reports that chess was first played by four players.

Through the efforts of Bindusara, the Indian state becomes one of the largest empires ancient world second half of the 1st millennium BC. e.

At the peak of power

Conquests of Ashoka

By the time of Ashoka's reign, the state included most of modern India and lands in Central Asia. Ashoka took up the idea of ​​uniting all of India under a single central authority. Becoming the third ruler of the Mauryan state in 273 BC. e., Ashoka, son of Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta, united under his rule the central, northern and northeastern parts of India. The strong ruler managed to put an end to the resistance of the East Indian state of Kalinga and subjugate the highly developed lands of the Ganges valley, the Punjab, as well as many remote areas inhabited by backward tribes, which, having become part of a powerful state, got the opportunity for the rapid development of the economy and culture. Ashoka, like his predecessor Chandragupta, considered war not as an end in itself, but only as a means of solving the problem.

The good armament of the Indian army contributed to the rapid conquest of neighboring territories. In North India, traditionally made high-quality edged weapons, known far beyond the borders of the country.

It is known that before the advent of Islam, the Arabs called the sword "muhannad", which meant "from Hind", or "Indian". During the battles with the troops of Alexander the Great, the Persians sent envoys to purchase swords and daggers from the Indians.

In addition, the Indian army owned well-trained elephants, the original tanks of ancient society. In many battles, elephants decided their outcome in favor of their owners.

All the lands of India recognized the authority of the new ruler, except for the southern part, but Ashoka could easily capture the remaining free territories with the help of his powerful army. He became the first military leader in history to dislike fighting and killing in the midst of wars of conquest and to refrain from further conquest.

According to the aspirations of Ashoka, Buddhism became the main law of a prosperous state.

Ashoka's empire supported diplomatic relations with neighbors. It is well known about mutual embassies both with Seleucus and with Ptolemy Philadelphus, who ruled in Egypt.

At first, good relations were based only on trade interests, and later on a common religion - Buddhism. Ashoka sent Buddhist missions to his neighbors, dreaming of spreading the philosophy of Buddhism to vast territories. Sources report that Buddhist envoys have even been sent to Sri Lanka.

State administration

The central executive body of the state was the emperor himself and the council of dignitaries (parishad). All the most important issues of the state were in their hands.

In addition to the parishad, the emperor held a secret council of a small number of specially trusted persons. In case of war, an additional state body, the rajasabha, was assembled, consisting of representatives of the Indian aristocracy and elected citizens and rural community members.

The state had departments of separate departments, the most numerous of which was the staff of the military council. Some of the officials supervised the actions and formation of the infantry, another part followed the war chariots, the third - the war elephants, the fourth was engaged in the supply of the army, the fifth - the formation of the fleet, which served as an addition to the ground army units.

The empire had an irrigation department that oversaw the condition of a huge number of canals, a shipping department that dealt with harbors, bridges, boats, ferries and ships for various purposes. There were also city governments, but there is almost no information about this. It is only known that in each department there was a strict division of powers according to the military principle: some officials were responsible for organizing handicraft workshops, others for collecting taxes, others for the population census, etc. Sources reported that there was a city government in Pataliputra, which consisted of 300 people divided into six committees of five members each. The committees controlled the work of artisans, religious organizations, the sewerage and water supply systems, the condition of public buildings and gardens, the registration of births and deaths, the accommodation of travelers and pilgrims.

The provincial governments were directly subordinate to the central ones. The empire under Ashoka was divided into five major governorships, headed by princes from ancient Indian families.

Community peasants had to pay high taxes so that the state could maintain a huge army and an entire army of officials. During the period of the highest prosperity of the state, each peasant had to pay a sixth of the harvest to the treasury and additionally perform a number of duties.

Ashoka personally supervised the activities of the governing bodies. Once every 3 years, the emperor carried out control checks in the governorships. The inspectors were supposed to identify all shortcomings in the work of local governments and monitor compliance with the rule of law and fair conduct of legal proceedings.

Varna religion and Buddhism

In his activities and in the life of the entire state, Ashoka was guided by dharma, one of the main philosophical concepts of the ancient religion of Hinduism.

Ashoka understood religious tolerance as dharma, but by the end of his life, the Indian king became an ardent supporter of Buddhism, which caused discontent among the reactionary stratum of the population, who revered the Brahmins and Brahmanism. Brahmanism was based on the ancient Indian concept of "varna", which meant a strict division of society into castes. By the middle of the 1st millennium, a more or less understandable system of varnas had developed on the territory of Northern India, which became the center of the formation of the empire. It consisted of four castes, subdividing the entire population of the Indo-Aryans into priests and warriors, aristocrats and rulers, manufacturing workers and servants. Thus, each person already by birth belonged to a certain varna, which affected his abilities and fate. Religion convinced people that they should come to terms with their place in history and try to improve karma (natural virtues and vices). Thanks to such a formulation of the question of the religious world of the Indians, there was practically no social struggle against the authorities in the state.

Dharma (translated from Sanskrit - "law, virtue") was known in Indian society even before the spread of Buddhism. Then dharma was defined as a special gift of providence. In Buddhism, dharma was transferred as a concept of the universal law of the universe.

The highest Varna (Brahmins) considered white as their color as a symbol of purity. The Brahmins were in charge of all the rites and rituals in society, they studied the ancient sacred texts.

Kshatriyas (warriors) recognized red as their color as a symbol of fire.

Vaishyas (farmers) constituted the third varna; their color was yellow as a symbol of the soil.

These three highest varnas were officially called "twice-born", since the boys from these castes in childhood underwent a special ritual of "second birth" - initiation into members of the Aryan society.

Shudras are servants, the symbol of the representatives of the fourth caste was black. This is the only varna in ancient Indian society that did not claim to be descended from the ancient Indo-Aryans.

Thanks to the formed caste system, all the tribes and peoples of the territories annexed to the Indian state immediately took their place according to their profession and position. Those who did not find a place in the caste hierarchy fell into the caste of the untouchables, or Chandalas.

The religion of varnas convinced the Indian that it depended on his behavior in this life which varna he would fall into in his next reincarnation. From this religion, the social structure of the caste system later grew in society.

Ashoka already in the second half of his life became an ardent Buddhist, bringing numerous donations to Buddhist monasteries and temples. The king supported the activities of Buddhists in every possible way, limiting, in turn, the Brahmins and representatives of other religions and sects.

Ashoka's messengers went to different countries talking about a new religion. Ashoka sent his own children, Mahendra and Sangamitra, to South India and to Ceylon.

The choice of Ashoka as the priority religion of the state of Buddhism caused great discontent in society, since many continued to revere the ancient cults and treated the Brahmin priests with great respect. Brahmanism eventually began to transform into a new religion - Hinduism.

The cave Buddhist monastery of Karli, located in the state of Maharashtra in India, is considered one of the oldest and richly decorated monuments of Buddhism. At the entrance to the monastery there are stambha columns carved from stone with figures of lions.

Decrees of Ashoka

All the actions and thoughts of the great emperor of India are recorded in decrees made on stone or metal. The documents are written in the third person, and Ashoka refers to himself as "His Sacred Majesty". The information contained in the decrees tells us that the ruler of the Indian country was not only an ardent admirer of Buddhism, but also an active builder, advocated the expansion of trade relations with other countries and sent envoys everywhere to spread knowledge about Buddhism.

The first decree contains a ban on killing or sacrificing animals, as this was contrary to the basic postulates of Buddhism. The second decree ordered to build hospitals for people and animals, dig wells, and grow medicinal plants.

One of the decrees contains the repentance of Ashoka, saddened by the sight of massacres during the seizure of foreign territories. The emperor announces that he will not allow any more innocent deaths of civilians, since true conquest is the conquest of hearts with the help of the law of duty.

The decrees of the emperor testify that Ashoka was constantly actively involved in the affairs of the state, considered the main task of his activity to be the achievement of the common good of the population of a vast country.

As a true adherent of Buddhism, Ashoka argued that any religions and manifestations of religions have the right to exist. One of the decrees says that all sects have the right to preach their views.

Urban development and trade

From fortresses that served to protect the lands of the ancient Indians from being captured by neighboring peoples, cities turned into trade and craft centers as part of a strong state.

The craft developed rapidly, and craftsmen began to form corporations to increase production capabilities. Jewelery, mining of diamonds, rubies, corals, pearls, gold and silver was developed. Indian artisans produced silk, woolen and cotton fabrics, weapons, furniture, built boats and large ships, made chess and toys, baskets and pots.

All activities of artisans (both their hours of work and the prices of goods) were strictly controlled by the state, which also led construction work, shipping, maritime trade. New roads were laid throughout the empire, facilitating trade relations between different regions of the country. The main road was called the royal road and connected the capital of the country with posts on the northwestern border. Inns, taverns, caravanserais, gambling houses were opened along the roads. Life in the empire became more and more luxurious and full of entertainment. Troupes of actors and dancers roamed the towns and villages, and the rural communities were obliged to support them, arrange them for the night and supply them with food.

Along with Buddhist missionary work, India's trade relations also expanded. In Central Asia, in Khotan, there was a large Indian trading colony. Strabo in "Geography" reports that in the era of the Mauryan Empire, the Oxus (Amu Darya) river in Central Asia was an important link in the chain of movement of goods through the Caspian and Black Sea to Europe. In those times far from us, the lands of Central Asia were fertile and rich. It is known that during the time of Ashoka, trade relations were established with China, from which silk fabrics came to India. At this time, many Chinese pilgrims who accompanied trade caravans traveled through the lands of India, often staying there for permanent residence. According to sources, trade between India and the Far East was developed; however, the routes were very dangerous, and shipwrecks are often reported in documents. Merchants in general had to have courage and courage in order to go on long journeys with a cargo of goods.

On the territory of the former Mauryan Empire, archaeologists have found evidence of foreign merchants staying there: indigo paint was delivered from Egypt, Greek policies– special clay vases and glass decorations.

The main sources on ancient Indian history, apart from the works of Greek authors, are the Puranas, monuments of ancient Indian literature, which are considered sacred in Hinduism. The Puranas contain descriptions of historical events, Indian rulers, legends and myths.

Many cities of the empire developed rapidly and had a significant population, but the university centers and the capital remained the largest.

In Taxila, which became a major university center during the reign of Ashoka, students from neighboring and even distant countries came to study. The remains of a second ancient Indian university have been discovered between Pataliputra and Gaya.

The ancient center of education, Benares, also developed, which was very famous at the time of the Buddha (the first sermon was delivered by the Buddha in the Deer Park near Benares).

Ashoka's capital was Pataliputra, founded in the 5th century BC. BC e. at the confluence of the rivers Sona and Ganges. Pataliputra, colorfully described in the memoirs of Chinese and Greek travelers in India, was the main city of the Magadha kingdom even before the Mauryan dynasty. Under Ashoka ancient city turned into a major commercial, craft and cultural center of the empire and became one of the largest cities in the world (the area of ​​the city was 50 km 2). Pataliputra went down in history as the city in which King Ashoka personally created the first Buddhist cathedral in world history. Surrounded by a palisade with towers and loopholes for archers-defenders of the city, Pataliputra stretched along the southern bank of the Ganges for almost 16 km. The main attractions of the capital were the wooden carved palace of Chandragupta and his personal palace erected under Ashoka, which existed for more than 700 years until it was destroyed by the Huns at the end of the 6th century. Archaeologists who have studied the remains of wooden buildings claim that all the logs were processed in some special mysterious way, as they have been perfectly preserved to this day, despite the hot climate of India.

Scientists believe that foreign builders worked on the construction of colossal structures (the architectural forms of some columns were made similar to the same columns in Persepolis). Already in the period ancient history In India, in all buildings there is a completely new Indian style, which later became classic.

Agriculture

Large lands belonged to the state, the authorities also determined the size of the duties of the rural population. The basis of agriculture in ancient India was communities that did not lose their strength and stability for many centuries. In communities united in dozens and hundreds, collective land use was preserved for a long time, and many issues (building roads, public buildings, laying canals) were solved by the peasants together. In addition to agriculture proper, horticulture, cattle breeding and dairy production were developed. In rural areas, flowers were bred and fruits were grown.

The main food products before the spread of Buddhism were rice, millet, wheat, corn, meat, poultry and fish, game obtained by hunting, in particular venison. Dairy products were in high esteem, and local wine was prepared from rice and fruits, which was noticeably inferior in terms of palatability imported Greek.

In ancient Indian society, the peasant led a subsistence economy, and each community maintained several artisans, primarily a potter, a blacksmith, a carpenter, a barber, and in some cases a jeweler and an astrologer-priest.

Community peasants at an early stage in the development of Indian society were exempted from military service, as this was done by the Kshatriya caste.

In addition to the lands of the community members, there were quite significant territories that belonged to rulers and temples. These lands were cultivated by slaves, mercenaries or tenants from poor communal peasants.

In a special position in society were karmakars - mercenaries from the lower castes. Karmakars cultivated the land, became artisans, servants, shepherds, differing from slaves in the possibility of drawing up an agreement with the employer.

Slaves in Indian society were exclusively prisoners of war (often from nomadic tribes) and stood below all the castes that existed in the state. Slave labor was used only in the most hard work or in the personal households of rulers and temples. Female slaves in most cases became the concubines of Indian men, and the birth of a child from a full member of society made the slave free.

Slaves were bought and sold, but at the same time they had the right to start a family and have children. Being on agricultural work for several years, the slave passed into a lower caste.

Kshatriya Warriors

Warriors in ancient Indian society belonged to the Kshatriya varna, the ancient rulers more often also belonged to the Kshatriyas. Unlike many ancient states, the warrior caste in India was looked upon with great respect.

From especially distinguished warriors, a military-tribal aristocracy was formed, which occupied a high position in the state of Ashoka. Above them in position were only Brahmin priests. Historians believe that the name of Varna goes back to the word, which in Sanskrit means “to hurt”.

The first kshatriyas appeared in the state during the conquest of Indian lands by the ancient Aryans. Future warriors received special education, strict requirements were imposed on them: a kshatriya had to be able to show justice, courage, courage, achieve honor, help the poor.

Throughout the existence of the empire of Ashoka, the warriors of the ancient Indian army were not supposed to harm the crops and were obliged to compensate for the damage. Any illegal methods of warfare (killing sleepers, using poisoned arrows, refusing to help refugees, destroying beautiful buildings and temples) were prohibited. Over time (during the medieval period), the kshatriyas ceased to engage only in military campaigns, many of their descendants learned crafts and trade.

Decline of an empire

Ashoka's propaganda of Buddhism aroused dissatisfaction not only with part of the population, but also with the Brahmin priests themselves, who had considerable authority in the ancient Indian state.

It was thanks to the efforts of the Brahmins that a significant weakening of the power of the emperor himself and the dignitaries and officials around him took place.

Created with difficulty and great efforts, the well-functioning centralized state machine began to fall apart due to the adoption of a new religion by the emperor.

Serious troubles began in the country, disputes among the aristocracy and relatives of the king. Some sources speak of the division of the lands of a single empire immediately after the death of Ashoka between his successors.

H. J. Wells left wonderful lines about Ashoka: “Among the tens of thousands of names of monarchs mentioned in the annals of history, all these majesties, lordships, royal highnesses, the name of Ashoka sparkles like a lone star ... And now there are more people on earth who honor the memory of Ashoka, than people who have ever heard of Constantine or Charlemagne."

In 180 BC. e. the once powerful empire collapsed, and the Mauryan dynasty ceased to exist.

The new ruler of the Pushyamitra empire, who belonged to the Shung dynasty, attempted to restore the strength of the Mauryan dynastic state, but failed. As the military leader of the last Mauryan emperor, who was killed by him during a military parade, he managed to regain control of some territories only for a short period of time.

Pushyamitra's successors turned out to be completely incapable of governing the state. The final collapse of the empire was facilitated by long heavy wars in northern India with the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.

On the ruins of the former greatness

The Mauryan dynasty was replaced by the Shung dynasty, whose power no longer extended to such vast territories. Large states appeared in the southern part of Hindustan, in the north the Bactrians seized lands from Kabul to Punjab.

State of the Kushans

The Central Asian tribes of the Yuezhi, who migrated under the onslaught of the Huns, who dominated the Mongolian steppes in the 1st millennium, occupied the lands of the former Bactrian kingdom and became known in India under the name of the Kushans.

The culture of the Kushans was based on a mixture of the traditions of nomadic tribes and the developed culture of the Bactrian kingdom. In the 1st century n. e. the Kushans created a strong state, which strengthened its position through successful wars with Parthia.

The southern border of the Kushan state ran along the northern Indian borders, and in the middle of the 1st century. n. e. the Kushans, ruled by Kadphis II and his successor Kanishka, conquered most of the Indian lands along with the Indus basin and part of the Ganges basin.

The Kushan kingdom, which was based on the cultural traditions of the Hellenistic Bactria, chose Buddhism as its religion. Kanishka, following Ashoka, went down in history as a famous Indian emperor who patronized Buddhism. Under Kanishka, thanks to the reforms carried out by the monk Nagarjuna, Buddhism became simpler and more understandable to the common population, but the religious castes of priests remained quite strong in society. At the same time, it was during the reign of Kanishka that Buddhism became known in China, where it quickly became widespread.

In the old university city of Taxila, people of different nationalities met - Indians and Greeks, Scythians and Yuezhi, Chinese and Turks. Cultures mixed, overlapped each other, creating wonderful combinations. The Kushans eventually adopted Indian culture and became its worthy successors.

Gupta

In the middle of the II century. n. e. The Kushan kingdom ceased to exist, and was replaced in Northern India by the Gupta state. The founder of the dynasty is Chandragupta I, who inherited the lands of the former state of Magadha and the city of Pataliputra after the death of his father. Having married a princess from an ancient Indian family, Chandragupta I significantly expanded the territories of the new state, and according to some sources, united the two kingdoms into a single state. The borders of the new Indian state passed along the borders of Nepal and extended far to the west, to the modern city of Allahabad. During the reign of Chandragupta I, a gold coin was minted in the state with the image of the king himself and his wife Kumaradevi. The high level of development of crafts is evidenced by a unique iron column more than 7 m high, installed in Delhi and which has existed to our time, almost not destroyed by corrosion.

In 320, Chandragupta was officially crowned and took the title of "king of great kings". From this year in Indian history opened new system chronology, called the "Gupta era" and existed for several centuries.

The successors of Chandragupta I, his son Samudragupta, who was called the descendants of Napoleon for his outstanding qualities as a commander, and the grandson of Chandragupta II copied the internal administration of the state of Ashoka, introducing several innovations into it, for example, greater centralization of power. Chandragupta II (380-415), expanding the borders of the state to the coast of the Arabian Sea, led the country to its highest prosperity; his reign has gone down in history as the "golden age of the Gupta".

The state lasted until the end of the 5th century. n. e. Weakened under the blows of the warlike tribe of the Huns-Ephthalites, the country ceased to exist, having held out for a little more than 3 centuries. The power of the Huns, which lasted 50 years, ended due to the efforts of Kanauja Haravardhana, who created a powerful state in the territory of Central and Northern India.

South India

During the reign of the Maurya dynasty, the first political structures appeared on the territory of South India. In the 1st century n. e. several large states were created there - Chera, Pandya, Chola.

The political structure of the Cher is mentioned in sources in the 3rd century. BC e. In the decrees of Ashoka, the country was called Keralaputra, and it received its greatest development after the collapse of his state and held leadership among the South Indian countries until the 8th century. n. e. In the next century, Chera was conquered by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and even later fell under the influence of another powerful state in the region - the Chola.

The Chola state rose in the 1st century. n. e., reached its greatest power by the X century. It is mentioned in sources up to the 13th century. In 1021, one of the most powerful Chola rulers, as a result of an aggressive campaign, annexed the lands of the former Chera to his possessions. The Cholov dynasty survived the existence of the state itself for a long time and was known until the middle of the 18th century.

The Pandya state is known for being one of the three most powerful states in South India for 300 years (from the 1st to the 4th century AD), and in the 9th century. the Pandyan dynasty, having united with the neighboring Chera, tried to repulse the Rashtrakutas claiming their lands. Pandya finally disintegrated under the onslaught of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century.

By the beginning of the IV century. the most powerful state in the region is the power of the Pallavas, on the territory of which the population adhered to Hinduism, and the peasant community was at the heart of the social structure. The most famous ruler was Narasimha I, who ruled in the 7th century. The Pallava state played a significant role in the development of South Indian culture.

By the beginning of the tenth century significant territories of South and Western India were occupied by the medieval Rashtrakut dynasty, which created a powerful state.

North India

Almost the entire territory of North India was subjugated to his power at the end of the 6th century. the ruler of the state of Sthaneshvara - Harsha. The entire existence of this state fits into the framework of the reign of Harsha (606-646), after which it collapsed. King Harsha created a sufficiently strong and disciplined army and patronized Buddhism, trying to spread it to the territory of distant China.

From the middle of the 7th century a long period of disunity and internecine wars began on the lands of northern India. The nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of the Huns and Ephthalites who moved to these territories formed a new ethno-political community - the Rajput caste, and on its basis - a powerful state association headed by princes.

Ephthalites are semi-nomadic tribes who committed in the 5th-6th centuries. predatory raids on the territory of Aran and the northwestern parts of India. At the end of the 5th century The state of the Hephthalites was created, which included the territories of Eastern Iran, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia.

The Rajput state of the Pratihars was defeated by the Arab army of Mahmud Ghaznavid at the beginning of the 11th century, after which it disintegrated into small principalities.

This historical period is characterized by intensified wars between the small states of South and North India.

Until very recently, Indian historians and archaeologists singled out the so-called dark age - from the end of the Harappan culture to the beginning of the historical period (in Indian terminology), that is, until the appearance of the first written sources. Such a classification, however, was due to the poor knowledge of the so-called post-Harappan era. Nowadays, dark age scholars are more and more inclined to think that no "dark age" really existed. New research by Indian archaeologists fills a significant gap between the fall of Harappa and the period marked by the emergence of written sources. Excavations at Kathiyawar testify to the development of local post-Harappan cultures over a very long period after the Fall of the main centers of the Harappan civilization.

Of particular interest is the study of multi-layered settlements in the Ganges valley. In 1950-1952 B. Lal, during the excavations of Hastinapur, uncovered layers from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. up to the Middle Ages. In the lower layer of the settlement, instead of the expected Harappan pottery, fragments of yellow, poorly fired pottery were found, which can be attributed to the “copper hoard” culture. Above it lay a layer of the "grey painted pottery" culture (the second layer of Hastinapur).

Gray painted pottery here is represented by thin, well-fired vessels, mainly gray color which are made on a potter's wheel. The metal is mostly copper. A small number of iron objects appear only in the uppermost part of the layer. From the bones of animals, bones of a horse, a pig, a sheep were found; from cereals - grains of rice. Findings of a significant number of horse bones speak of its great importance in the economy of these tribes. The remains of dwellings made of mud bricks and reeds covered with clay were unearthed. Terracotta figurines depict mainly animals. A similar complex of the "grey painted pottery" culture is also found in other settlements (Ahichchhatra, Kurukshetra, Mathura).

Gray painted ceramics, according to B. Lal, are also similar to ceramics from Iran (Shah-Tepe), from the region south of Lake Urmia and from Sistan. The study of the culture of "grey painted ceramics" (mainly its early stages, dating back to the 12th-11th centuries BC) allows us to restore some features of the material culture of the Indo-Aryan tribes of the era of the formation of the Rigveda and the main stages of its development on Indian soil. The Vedic Aryans appear before us as sedentary farmers and cattle breeders who know the potter's wheel, and from metals - copper, which is consistent with the materials of the Rig Veda.

The third period at Hastinapur (early 6th-early 3rd century BC) is characterized by northern black polished pottery, which seems to have developed from the gray painted pottery that preceded it. Metal objects - mostly iron.

Data on the relationship between gray painted pottery and northern black polished pottery, common in a large area of ​​India, are of great interest. They allow us to say that the later phases of the "grey painted pottery" culture are not alien to local Indian traditions. Its creators, although they were associated with the Aryan tribes who came here, in the era under consideration (IX-VIII centuries BC) appear before us already as proper Indian tribes. The newcomers merged with the local population and created a single culture that can be traced in a significant part of the territory of the Northern

India. The subsequent cultural layers of Hastinapur already date back to the era when, in addition to material monuments, written materials dated coins (4th-3rd centuries BC) come to the aid of researchers.

Fragment of "grey painted pottery"

During this period, new centers of Indian culture arose in the Ganges valley, new states were created, economic, trade and cultural ties were strengthened between different regions of the country. The center of Indian culture and statehood is moving from the banks of the Indus to the Ganges valley.

The study of post-Harappan cultures in Balochistan also indicates that Balochistan did not know the "Dark Age" period. According to D. Gordon, southern Balochistan and Makran after the Harappan civilization were inhabited by peoples who left the culture of "funeral pyramids" and ceramics of the Londo type. The creators of these cultures already knew iron. Great importance they had a horse in their household. The last phases of these still poorly studied cultures date from the middle of the 7th to the middle of the 5th centuries. BC e.

Our evidence about the life and culture of the tribes of the Vedic Aryans is based not only on archeological materials, but also on the data contained in the collections of sacred hymns of the ancient Indians - the Vedas.

Some data on the social structure and economic structure of the Vedic tribes

The formation of the Rig Veda, the earliest monument of Vedic literature, into a single collection dates back to approximately the 10th-9th centuries. BC e.; although the information that the Vedic tradition has preserved for us may also refer to previous periods in the history of the Indo-Aryan tribes.

It is the combination of both types of materials - archaeological and documentary - that makes it possible to more clearly present the main features and features of the economic structure, life, material culture, religious ideas of the Aryan tribes in the so-called Vedic era (this term can conditionally be called the period from the appearance in India of the Indo-Aryan tribes before the formation of the first states in the Ganges valley.Researchers subdivide this significant period of time into early Vedic and late Vedic periods).

As mentioned above, the Vedic Aryans of the era of the formation of the Rigveda appear before us as settled farmers and pastoralists. This is confirmed not only in archaeological, but also in documentary material. Although the population was not nomadic, cattle breeding, and not agriculture, remained important, and perhaps the main type of economic activity. The craft, in its technical level, was inferior to the craft of the creators of the Harappan culture. The Aryan tribes during this period, apparently, did not yet know writing. Their religion also differed significantly from the religion of the bearers of the Harappan culture. In it, the cult of female deities played a much smaller role, the representations characteristic of agricultural cults, etc., were weakly manifested.

In the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. e. the intensive resettlement of the Aryans along the Ganges valley begins. Aryan tribes settled downstream the Ganges and Jumna, gradually strengthening their positions. The language, religion, economic and social structure of the Aryan tribes spread in the Ganges valley.

It used to be a common claim that iron mining and processing techniques were brought to India by the Aryans. The reason for this was the interpretation of the term "ayas" found in the Rigveda as "iron". At present, most researchers believe that the ancient Indians used the word "ayas" to call metal in general; the indisputable oldest mention of iron occurs much later - in the later hymns of the Atharva Veda. The Aryan tribes of the era of the Rigveda knew only copper. Already in the Ganges valley they switched to iron. Iron metallurgy, therefore, arose independently in India in the 1st millennium BC. e.

The transition to iron was an important factor in the successful development of the Ganges valley and further progress in the field of material production: more and more new territories were conquered from swamps and jungles; the labor of the farmer became more productive.

If the main grain crop in the period of the Rigveda was barley, then in the late Vedic period, rice, sugarcane, and cotton crops spread in the Ganges valley. Climatic conditions and new agricultural machinery made it possible to grow two crops a year. Plow agriculture developed widely. Bulls were used as draft animals. Artificial irrigation developed, but the existence of large irrigation facilities during this period has not yet been established.

Important, although no longer leading role, cattle breeding continued to play, especially cattle breeding. Horse breeding gradually developed, especially in the north-west of the country. Horses were used mainly in military affairs.

The most ancient culture of the Aryans, as far as we can judge, was inferior to the culture of Harappa in terms of its level of development. According to archaeological data, cities in the central part of the Ganges valley appear only in the 1st millennium BC. e. and by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. even the most famous of them (for example, the capital of the heroes of the Mahabharata, Hastinapur), apparently, could not be equal to Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

Cities were the main centers of handicraft production. The presence of war chariots, on which the nobility fought, suggested quite high level metalworking craftsmanship. Of the items of weapons, spears, battle axes, swords, armor, helmets, bows and arrows are mentioned. There already seemed to be a certain division of labor; weavers wove cotton, woolen, silk and linen fabrics. The fabrics were dyed various colors. Carpenters knew how to make multi-oared ships.

"- Dwellings and city fortifications in the Ganges Valley, unlike the Harappan culture, were built at that time mainly from wood, and this contributed to the development of wooden architecture and artistic woodworking.

In connection with the increased exchange between the tribes, professional merchants appeared. The unit of exchange and measure of value was cattle (cows) or the most common ornaments. Only by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. coins appear, and still very primitive ones, in the form of small silver bars with a hallmark. Trade was conducted along land routes and along rivers. There is reason to believe that there was also international trade - land and sea.

The growth of productive forces and labor productivity contributed to the steadily continuing process of property and social stratification of the Aryan tribes.

The arable land from communal ownership passed into the possession of individual families, and the tribal elite seized the best and largest plots. In those conditions, it was possible to exploit, first of all, people from a foreign tribe. Prisoners of war were no longer exterminated, but turned into slaves.

Dozens and hundreds of slaves are mentioned in the Rigveda. Ownership of slaves became one of the main indicators of wealth and high social status.

The main term for a slave was the word "dasa"; as we have already mentioned, non-Aryan tribes were also called so in the Vedas. This indicates that the first slaves of the Aryans were prisoners of war from tribes alien to them. Then this term began to designate slaves - prisoners of war from the Aryans, and finally, slaves in general.

Having arisen, slavery steadily * developed; the enslavement of the impoverished fellow tribesmen by the rich and noble increased. Debt slavery emerged.

Slaves were the complete property of the owner. Their position differed little from that of livestock. They were sold, donated, transferred as a dowry along with other property. According to legend, they were bought in order to be sacrificed to the gods. The children of a slave were considered the property of the owner of the mother. The words "slave", "son of a slave" were used as swear words.

Slaves fell in the form of war booty mainly into the hands of the nobility; this “contributed to the strengthening of its position. The nobility, which seized the organs of tribal administration, gets the opportunity to dispose of common tribal property. The military leader of the tribe (raja), relying on the tribal nobility, from now on gets the opportunity to impose the decision he wants on the tribal assembly or do without his consent at all. Gradually, the position of the raja becomes hereditary, he turns (into a king). The highest positions in the state administration - the royal priest, tax and tribute collector, treasurer, etc., as well as command posts in the army - become the privilege of the slave-owning nobility.

But for a long time, new class relations were closely intertwined with primitive communal ones, and the state used tribal institutions - meetings of the nobility, popular meetings, etc., which gradually adapted to new social conditions.

During the period under review, the division of all once equal, free members of society into four groups, unequal in their social status, rights and duties, was determined: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Priests in ancient india were called brahmins, warriors - kshatriyas, all other community members, and later the overwhelming majority of the urban population - vaishyas.

These social groups of an estate character were called by the Indians varnas. The origin of varnas dates back to the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system, when there was a division into nobility and ordinary community members.

Initially, those who performed cult duties, as well as those who were engaged in military affairs, did not have special privileges. But gradually these occupations become hereditary, and their carriers occupy a privileged position and stand out from the rest. total mass ordinary community members. They begin to dominate the tribal militia, arrogate to themselves the pre-emptive right to occupy positions in government bodies, to the best part of common tribal property, military booty, etc. Their dominance extends to the field of ideology.

Then there are unequal community members - Shudras. These were * members of small tribes, united with stronger ones on unequal conditions, or members of tribes defeated in wars, as well as outcasts, etc. They were not allowed to decide public affairs and did not participate

in tribal worship; they did not go through the rite of initiation - the "second birth", to which only members of the three "highest" - varnas, called "twice-born" in contrast to the "one-born" - Shudras, had the right. The basis of this ceremony, performed at the age of 8-10 years, was the laying on the consecrated sacred cord * and belts, accompanied by the reading of a hymn to the sun.

With the emergence of the state, the inequality of these social groups, their rights and obligations, both in relation to the state and to each other, are legitimized.<к другу.

The "higher" ones - brahmins and kshatriyas - try to separate themselves, not to allow vaishyas and shudras into their environment, and also to prevent mixing of vaishyas with shudras. This is how varnas are formed - class social groups of the city.

In the ancient Indian epic, there are memories of the times when women occupied an equal position with men in society, enjoyed respect, participated in solving public affairs, had the right to choose their own husband, remarry, and even have several husbands.

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. in the states of the Ganges valley, the patriarchal family was already firmly established. The word tati" - husband also meant "master", "lord". In the families of kings and nobles, polygamy was common, but marriages among the common people were usually monogamous. Women have already lost the right to decide issues in the people's assembly. In the families of priests and military nobility, they could no longer dispose of family property, they were removed from the performance of priestly functions. The husband could demand and easily obtain a divorce; the obligation to observe marital fidelity did not exist for him. The wife practically could not dissolve the marriage at will, and her infidelity to her husband was severely punished. According to the religious ideas of that time, the wife, even in the next world, remained in a position subordinate to her husband.

The head of the family single-handedly disposed of the family property and the products of labor of its individual members and practically had the right of life and death over them. In the lower strata of society, the position of women was higher, and the remnants of former equality were more pronounced.

Due to the leading role of the states of the upper part of the Ganges valley in the political and cultural life of India of the period under review, the customs and religious beliefs that have developed here, the sacred texts and the language in which they were created (Sanskrit), are gradually spreading throughout the country.

ancient Indian slave states

In the VII-VI centuries. BC e. early slave-owning states (Magadha, Kashi, Koshala, Anga, Kuru, Panchala, etc.) had already taken shape in the Ganges valley, and waged a fierce struggle among themselves. The main contenders for political hegemony were Koshala (in the territory of the present state of Uttar Pradesh) and Magadha (in the center of the modern state of Bihar). The struggle between them ended in the 4th century. BC e. the victory of Magadha and the political unification of the entire Ganges valley, and then almost all of eastern and part of western and central India under the rule of the rulers of the Nanda dynasty.

Significant changes in the social system were expressed in the religious struggle, which involved the broadest sections of the people. The religions that arose at this time - Buddhism and Jainism, spread over the centuries throughout India from the north to the extreme south.

During this period, a well-known cultural commonality developed between the main ethnic groups that inhabited northern India.

According to some European and Indian scholars (for example, S. K. Chatterjee), the Vedas and the Vedic religion, as well as the Upanishads, are not the creation of the Aryans exclusively. By the time the Vedic culture was formed, the merging (or, in any case, rapprochement) of a significant part of the peoples of India had reached such an extent that in the Vedas and in Vedic literature (both in language and in content) the influence of the Dravidians and other ancient inhabitants of the country is very noticeable. The doctrine of karma and the transmigration of souls, the practice of yoga, the idea of ​​deities (such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc.), many myths in the Puranas and the epic are pre-Aryan in nature. The same can be said about the marriage rites and a number of other customs of the Hindus. Clothing common throughout India, the cultivation of rice and many fruit trees (for example, tamarind and coconut palm) are also borrowed, according to Chatterjee, from the pre-Aryan population of India.

On the other hand, the Dravidian peoples of India borrowed much from the Aryans; The Dravidian languages ​​of India were heavily influenced by Sanskrit. In the first centuries before our era and at the beginning of our era, this connection between the peoples inhabiting the various regions of the country was already significant, and all the religious movements that were born in northern India spread all the way to the extreme south.

In 326 BC. e. The troops of Alexander the Great invaded northwestern India. He failed to break into the interior of the country, and the principalities of the Punjab he conquered remained dependent on the Greeks for a very short time. Companions of Alexander left quite a lot of evidence that allows us to judge the various aspects of the social and political system of ancient India. Only since that time is it possible to establish the exact chronology of the events of Indian history, because all the monuments of Indian literature proper are not dated and do not contain the dates of the events described.

In 322 BC. e. the Nanda dynasty in Magadha was overthrown by Chandragupta, who founded a new dynasty - Maurya (322-185). Chandragupta united all of northern India, ousting the Greeks from the Punjab, and created a large state, annexing part of southern India to it. The Mauryan empire reached its greatest power under Ashoka (272-232), who united a significant part of India under his rule. Buddhism was very widespread during this period.

India in the time of Ashoka

Emperor Ashoka left decrees in various parts of his empire, carved on rocks and columns and compiled in Prakrits - ancient local spoken languages. These edicts allow us to draw some conclusions about the nature of social relations at that time.

The Mauryan Empire was the first major slave state in the history of India, which is evidenced by written sources. True, Megasthenes, who was the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, denied the existence of slaves in India, but numerous references to slaves in the Indian epic and recent studies by both foreign and Soviet scientists allow us to say that we are not talking about the absence of slaves. at this time of slavery, but about the serious differences between Indian slavery and ancient. Slavery in India did not have such developed forms as in Greece and Rome. It often had a patriarchal character, and the number of slaves was relatively small.

Some Indian scholars suggest that the peculiar development of slavery in India is explained by the early emergence of a caste system in it, which made it possible for representatives of the “higher” castes to exploit the “lower” castes without directly enslaving them.

Under Ashoka's successors, the Maurya empire began to disintegrate. The most significant state of India at the turn of our era was Andhra, located in the northern part of the Deccan and stretching from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its population included Indo-Aryan and Dravidian peoples. South of Andhra, in a territory that was not part of the Mauryan Empire even at its heyday, there were three ancient Dravidian states - Pandya, Chola and Chera, inhabited mainly by Tamils ​​and Malayali.

From the middle of the II century. BC e. according to the III century. n. e. northern India was subjected to repeated invasions by the Greeks, who established themselves in Bactria, and then by the Parthians and Saks. One of the Saka peoples ruled for a long time (I-II centuries AD) in the northern regions of India. Especially famous is the Saka ruler from the Kushan family - Kanishka (78-123). Kanishka's empire included, in addition to northwestern and northern India, the territory of modern Afghanistan, most of Central Asia (Khorezm) and Bactria. The eastern border of the Kushan state in India is not exactly known, but Kanishka's coins have been found in Bihar and Bengal. Many coins of Kanishka were discovered during excavations in ancient Khorezm, which indicates strong economic ties between India and this region. The capital of Kanishka's empire was the city of Purushapur (modern Peshawar). The year of Kanishka's accession began to be considered the beginning of one of the Indian systems of chronology, widespread in medieval India and known as the "Shaka era".

The states of southern India during this period had fairly regular trade relations with the states of the Mediterranean - with Egypt, Greece and Rome. It is known that many objects of Indian origin were borrowed by the Greeks and Romans from the population of southern India and retained their Dravidian names in a slightly modified form (for example, rice, which in Greek was called oriza, in Tamil - arisi). Numerous Roman coins have been found in the states of southern India; some evidence suggests that the rulers of the Tamil states hired Roman soldiers as personal guards.

At the beginning of the IV century. n. e. there is a new rise of Magadha. Its ruler Chandragupta (320-330) united under his rule the main regions of Ganga India and founded the Gupta dynasty. The Gupta empire covered all of northern India. Its eastern border was the Ganges delta, while its western border extended from the eastern tributaries of the Indus to the Kathiyawar peninsula in the southwest. Samudragupta (approximately 330-380) made a victorious campaign in the Deccan, but could not annex southern India. The main sources for studying the history of this period are the dedicatory inscriptions of the Gupta rulers and the notes of the Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian, who visited India at the end of the 4th-beginning of the 5th century. n. e. Some historians believe that it was during the Gupta period that feudal relations were formed in India, but the question of socio-economic relations during this period is extremely complex and requires further development. The flourishing of the caste system testifies to the significant development of the social division of labor during this period.

South India in the VIII-X centuries.

In the middle of the 5th century the Huns (Ephthalites) invaded northern India, who struck a blow at the Guptas, but they themselves could not gain a foothold here even in the middle of the 6th century. were expelled. Northern India was in a state of political fragmentation until the beginning of the 7th century.

The culture of ancient India had a great influence on neighboring peoples. Monuments of Indian material culture are found in Central Asia, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Indochina and even in southern China, i.e. everywhere where there were more or less significant Indian colonies. The influence of India affected religion, writing, art, architecture and many customs of the peoples of these countries.

See "Introductory part", section "Cast system".

Sources give different accounts of the origin of the Mauryas. Some associate them with the Nandas, regarding Chandragupta as one of the sons of King Nanda. But in most sources (Buddhist and Jain), the Mauryas are considered a Kshatriya family from Magadha.

Why the Mauryan Empire is called the second state here is because the excavations in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro showed that another developed culture existed in India much earlier. What it was called - we do not know, but the age of the buildings and structures speaks for itself - they were earlier than Maurya.

The uprising against the parts of Alexander the Great, which led to the expulsion of foreign garrisons from India, was led by the above-mentioned Chandragupta. Memories of Chandragupta - one of the most remarkable statesmen in the history of India - were firmly preserved in the people's memory. But there is very little reliable data about him and his activities.

There is a legend that he was not distinguished by nobility of origin, belonged to the Shudra varna and owed everything to himself and his outstanding abilities. In his youth, he served under the king of Magadha, Dhana Panda, but as a result of some clash with the king, he fled to the Punjab. Here he met with Alexander the Great.

Perhaps even before the final expulsion of the Macedonians (about 324 BC) or shortly after the expulsion (the opinions of researchers on this matter differ), he organized a campaign in Magadha, overthrew Dhana Nanda and took the throne himself, thus laying the foundation of a dynasty, with whose reign is associated with the formation of the most powerful state in the history of ancient India.

After the family name of Chandragupta, the dynasty he founded was called the Maurya. Information has been preserved that the brahmin Kautilya (Chanakya), who later held the position of chief adviser to Chandragupta, an outstanding statesman, a supporter of strong royal power, played a large role in the overthrow of the Nanda dynasty and the accession of Chandragupta.

It is likely that Chandragupta succeeded in subjugating the whole of northern India, but the concrete data on his conquest activities have hardly reached us. Another clash with the Greek-Macedonians dates back to the time of his reign. Around 305 BC e. Seleucus I tried to repeat the campaign of Alexander the Great, but when he invaded India, he met with a completely different political situation, since Northern India was already united.

The details of the war between Seleucus and Chandragupta are unknown to us. The terms of the peace treaty concluded between them show that the campaign of Seleucus was unsuccessful. Seleucus ceded significant territories to Chandragupta, corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Balochistan, and gave his daughter as a wife to the Indian king, and Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 war elephants, which played an important role in Seleucus' further wars.

Chandragupta's successors

Chandragupta died, probably around 298 BC. e. About his successor and son Bindusar, apart from his name, almost nothing is known. It can be assumed that he not only retained all his possessions, but even significantly expanded them at the expense of the states of South India. Probably, a reflection of Bindusara's active conquest is his nickname Amitraghata, which means "destroyer of enemies."

After Bindusare's death, a long rivalry for power began between his sons. In the end, Ashoka seized the throne in Pataliputra.

King Ashoka is a bright historical figure, one of the most famous statesmen of Ancient India. His decrees, or edicts, are carved on the famous stone pillars (stone as a building material began to be used in the late Mauryan era).

Under Ashoka, the Mauryan state reached a special power. The empire expanded territorially and became one of the largest in the ancient East. Her fame spread far beyond India. Legends were created about Ashok and his activities, in which his merits in the spread of Buddhism were especially glorified.

Of great political importance is the war with Kalinga, a strong state on the coast of the Bay of Bengal (modern Orissa). The accession of Kalinga contributed to the strengthening of the empire. It is believed that after seeing the many corpses, the suffering and destruction caused during the capture of Kalinga, Ashoka felt strong remorse, which led him to adopt Buddhism and strengthen the faith.

Government of the Mauryan Empire

Tsar was the head of the administration. The appointment of officials and control over their activities depended on him. All tsarist officials were divided into groups of central and local administration. A special place was occupied by the king's advisers - the highest dignitaries (mantrines, mahamatras). The advisory collegial body, the mantriparishad, a kind of remnant of the bodies of tribal democracy, also consisted of the king's advisers.

Membership in the mantriparishad was not clearly established, along with dignitaries, representatives of cities were sometimes invited to it. This body retained some independence, but only on a number of minor issues could make independent decisions.

The preservation of state unity required a firm state administration. During the period of centralization, the Mauryas tried to keep all the threads of government in their hands, relying on various categories of officials that constitute an extensive network of executive and judicial apparatus.

Along with the appointment of officials by the tsarist government, there was a practice of transferring bureaucratic positions by inheritance, which was facilitated by the caste system. To give proper efficiency to the Mauryan state apparatus, they created a network of control, supervisory posts, inspecting officials - spies, royal secret agents, whom the king "received day and night" (Arthashastra, I, 19).

local government

The administrative division and the system of local government associated with it were of particular complexity in the Mauryan Empire: province - district - rural community.

Only part of the territory of the empire was under the direct control of the king and his court. The largest administrative unit was the province. Among them were the five largest provinces ruled by princes, and border provinces ruled by other members of the royal family. The functions of the ruler of the province included the protection of its territories, the maintenance of order, the collection of taxes, and the provision of construction work.

A smaller administrative unit was the district, headed by the district chief, "thinking about all matters", his duties included control over the village administration.

Domestic development

The era of the Mauryans was marked by significant successes in the economic field: agriculture, handicrafts, the iron industry developed, cities grew rapidly, trade and cultural ties expanded both between individual regions of Hindustan and with distant Hellenistic countries.

An active policy of conquest, the need to control the situation within a vast multi-tribal empire forced the Mauryans to maintain a large and well-armed army. Chandragupta's troops included about half a million soldiers, 9 thousand war elephants, which instilled fear in the enemy, especially non-Indians. Light chariots were replaced by heavy quadrigas. Indian archers knew no equal in shooting.

The territory of the empire consisted of many tribal formations with their own beliefs. Therefore, there was an urgent need for a religion that would help overcome the centuries-old contradictions in social and spiritual life. The country needed a doctrine capable of uniting, if possible, the tribes and peoples that inhabited the vast empire.

Under Ashoka, Buddhism strengthened its position - a religion that opposed narrow-caste and territorial restrictions, and therefore, ideologically strengthened the centralized state. The empire pursued a flexible religious policy that took into account the complex relationship between Buddhists and representatives of Jainism and Brahminism, which allowed various religious movements and schools to coexist relatively peacefully in society.

However, despite all the efforts of the central government, the motley and mosaic Mauryan empire, which united regions of different levels of social and economic development, ethnically diverse by force of arms, began to decline in the last years of Ashoka's reign.

The imminent collapse of the state

Tensions intensified within the state, centrifugal tendencies were clearly manifested. Ashoka's successors, both from the Mauryans and from the Shung dynasty that replaced them, were not distinguished by charisma and, being rather weak statesmen and politicians, did not manage to prevent the collapse of the state.

Unfavorable external factors also contributed to the fall of the empire, in particular the wars with the invading Greco-Bactrians, as well as the Indian states, which were led by Greek dynasties. By the 1st century BC e. the empire actually collapsed.

The period of the second half of the 1st millennium BC. in the history of India is important in many respects.

The most notable event in the political field was the formation of states of an all-India character, and in the field of ideology, the formation of Buddhism. These events were based on shifts in the sphere of material production and social relations that were not so noticeable at first glance.

Finding them out is the most difficult task for the historian, since none of the ancient civilizations of equal importance has left behind such meager sources for study.

For the period under consideration, however, epigraphic and numismatic data appear (both, however, are not numerous), evidence of ancient writers. But the huge religious and semi-religious literature contains very little historical data and is still often dated very roughly; there are no historical chronicles, political and economic documents of the palace and private archives, exactly dated monuments of the current legislation, etc. These unfavorable conditions for ancient Indian historiography must always be kept in mind.

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. the mobility of the population - a consequence of the development of the Ganges valley - stops and is replaced by a state of relative stability. At that time, there were several dozen small and up to 16 larger states in North India. In the struggle for dominance, Koshala (in the modern state of Uttar Pradesh) with its capital first in Ayodhya and then in Shravasti, and Magadha (in the southern part of the modern state of Bihar) with its capital first in Rajagriha (modern Rajgir), then in Pataliputra (now Patna). Between them, in the main, a struggle for political hegemony unfolded. At the beginning of the 5th century BC. under the Magadhian king Ajatashatru, it ended with the victory of Magadha, which gradually intensified more and more and in the 4th century. BC. which became the core of the Nanda empire, uniting all the states of the Ganges valley and, possibly, part of South India into one political entity.

Information about the Nanda empire is not only scarce, but also inconsistent. And yet it is probably the most interesting phenomenon in ancient Indian history. All later sources with rare unanimity speak of the dynasty that reigned in it with hatred and contempt, rank it among the Shudras (i.e., representatives of the “lowest” social stratum), and its founder, Ugrasena Nanda, is called the son of a barber. Around 345 BC he overthrew the king of Magadha and reigned himself. Such an extraordinary event, given the socio-psychological atmosphere that existed at that time, could not remain a simple episode of the court chronicle, and Ugrasena met with strong opposition in the circles of the ruling nobility; this is evident from the fact that he is remembered as an ardent enemy and destroyer of the kshatriyas (well-born nobility). At the same time, it is clear that Ugrasena had to not only possess the outstanding qualities of a statesman, but also rely on some social strata opposed to the ruling nobility, otherwise he would not have been able to hold out for a long time. And he not only held out, but also subdued by military means a huge territory in the Ganges valley, created a state that they did not dare to attack in 327 BC. even the troops of Alexander the Great, who had previously marched victoriously throughout the Near and Middle East. But we do not have any data that would allow us to present a picture of the events that took place and judge their social character.

North-Western India during the VI - IV centuries. BC. consisted of a large number of small states. Territories west of the Indus at the end of the 6th century. BC. became part of the Achaemenid Empire. It is possible that the power of the Persian kings also extended to some territories east of the Indus, but how far inland it is impossible to even approximately indicate.

Alexander the Great after the destruction of the Achaemenid Empire and the falling away of the former Indian satrapies of this empire in 327 BC. invaded the interior of the country. Some of the states located here submitted voluntarily, while others put up fierce resistance. It is well known how difficult it was for Alexander, for example, his victory over one of the Punjabi kings - Poroy. Discouraged by this resistance and the difficulties of the campaign, Alexander's soldiers refused to follow him when he set out to attack the Nanda empire, about the power of which the Greco-Macedonians had heard a lot; they knew that on the left bank of the Ganges an army of 200,000 infantry, 80,000 horsemen, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 elephants was waiting for them, that is, more than ten times the army of Por.

In 325 BC Alexander left India, leaving subordinate rulers and Greek-Macedonian garrisons in the conquered part of the country.

Muary Empire.

The stay of the invaders on Indian soil turned out to be short-lived: already in 317 BC. their last detachment left the country. The reason for this was both the wars between the commanders of Alexander after his death, and the struggle of the Indians against foreign conquerors.

This struggle was led by Chandragupta Maurya. According to some sources, he was from the Shudras, but most sources indicate that he came from a well-born Kshatriya. In his youth, Chandragupta served the Nandas, but quarreled with the king and was forced to flee to the north-west of the country. Here he joined Alexander, persuaded him to invade the Ganges valley and promised easy success, since the king was of low birth and his subjects would not support him. But the attempt to deal with the enemy by proxy failed, since Alexander did not dare to continue the campaign further east.

After the death of Alexander and the ensuing confusion in his empire, Chandragupta succeeded in expelling the Greek Macedonians from the country and fortified himself in the northwest so that he could resume the fight against the Pandas. This time it was successful: Ugrasena's then-reigning son Dhana Nanda was around 317 BC. overthrown, and Chandragupta became king of Pataliputra. At all stages of Chandragupta's turbulent career, his faithful companion and adviser was the brahmin Chanakya, an ardent enemy of the Nandas. Chanakya was remembered in the legends as a cunning politician, therefore he (under the name Kautilya) was credited with compiling the famous work “Arthashastra” - “The Science of Politics”.

Despite the fact that many legends have been preserved about Chandragupta, only one fact of his 24-year reign is known for certain. Around 305 BC there was a military clash between him and Seleucus I Nicator, who invaded India. Apparently, the advantage remained on the side of Chandragupta, since Seleucus, in exchange for 500 elephants, was forced to cede to the enemy significant territories of modern Afghanistan and Iran; Chandragupta also received a daughter, Seleucus, as his wife. After that, the ambassador of Megasthea arrived at the court of Chaidragupta from Seleucus, who left a description of India, which has not come down to us, but is well known from extensive quotations in the writings of other ancient writers.

After the 25-year reign of the son of Chandragupta Bindusara (293-268 BC), about which almost nothing is known, his son Ashoka (268 BC) reigned, during which the Mauryan Empire reached its greatest prosperity. .

The Mauryan Empire in the reign of Ashoka covered almost the entire Indian subcontinent, with the exception of the extreme south of the Deccan, as well as significant territories to the west of India. This empire was created, apparently, mainly by the military labors of his father and grandfather, since from the reign of Ashoka himself, only the conquest of Kalinga (modern Orissa) in the eighth year of the reign is known. The main task facing him was not the further expansion of the already huge empire, but its internal strengthening, uniting into a single whole a large number of peoples, differing in language, culture and level of social and economic development.

The most pressing was the need to organize management. The whole empire was divided into five main areas - pastoralities, usually ruled by members of the royal house: Magadha with the Ganges valley, which was under direct control from Pataliputra, the northwest with the center in the city of Taxila, the west (the city of Ujiyani), Kalinga (the city of Karelia). Tosali) and south (Suvariagiri). The governorships were divided into smaller administrative units. The king himself and the highest dignitaries systematically traveled around the provinces for inspection purposes.

It was essential to create the ideological foundation of the empire. On its territory there were many tribal religions, which created numerous social and cultural barriers between the government and subjects and between the subjects themselves.

What was needed was a religion more in line with the new social and political conditions, capable of becoming one for the diverse population of a vast country. Buddhism was the best for this. Ashoka, whose religious policy is well known to us thanks to the numerous inscriptions he left on the columns and rocks, managed to cordon him off. He himself adopted Buddhism and with state support, generous gifts to the Buddhist community and the construction of places of worship contributed to its spread. The state for the first time under Ashoka began to establish control over the spiritual life of its subjects.

The state and religious policy of Ashoka met with constant resistance from local separatists and the Brahmin priesthood. The situation became especially aggravated in the last years of Ashoka's life; it is even possible that he was removed from actual power. After his death (231 BC), the weakening and disintegration of the empire began, accelerated by attacks from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Around 180 BC the last representative of the Mauryan dynasty was overthrown and killed by his commander Pushyamitra, who founded the new dynasty of Shupgas. At that time, the power of the kings of Magadha apparently extended only to the Ganges valley and to the lands immediately adjacent to it from the south.

The Shupgi state had to repeatedly and not always successfully fight the Greco-Bactrians and the Indian states in the west, headed by the Greek dynashes.

In 68 BC in Magadha, another change of dynasty took place: the Kanvas came to power, about whose 45-year reign almost nothing is known.

The formation and one and a half century existence of the first all-Indian state of the Mauryans was of great importance. It was achieved (albeit by force) the political unification of the most diverse in ethnicity, language, level of development, nature of production and forms of culture of nationalities and tribes. This contributed to the overall economic development, the convergence of the constituent parts of the empire, and the exchange of cultural achievements.

India all this time was not subjected to enemy invasions. Foreign trade and political relations were established with the countries of the Mediterranean.

South India.

Until the beginning of our era, South India (the peninsular part of the country) lagged noticeably behind the North. This was a consequence of less favorable conditions for farming and for internal communications, greater remoteness from other centers of ancient civilizations. In the last centuries BC, the situation began to change.

The spread of iron tools allowed the local population to overcome difficulties in developing new lands, mining, developing marine industries and establishing maritime links with other countries (Africa, Ceylon, Southeast Asia). The stay of most of South India as part of the Mauryan Empire also contributed to the assimilation of the advanced North Indian experience by the local population.

Already in the Mauryan period, it is known about the existence in the extreme south of several states (Kerala, Chola, Pandya), which defended their independence, which testified to their sufficient maturity.

After the collapse of the empire, in the territories that previously belonged to it in South India, independent states also formed, some so strong that they themselves made conquest campaigns in Northern India (Kalinga, the state of the Satavahans).

Economy and social relations.

The period under review was marked by progress in all areas of the economy. In agriculture, the development of new lands, the development of artificial irrigation, and the expansion of the range of cultivated crops took place. It is known about the existence of large farms - the king, the nobility and the rich - many hundreds of hectares, with thousands of cattle, with a large number of forced laborers. The main task of animal husbandry is the rearing of draft animals.

Forest and sea industries remain the lot of the backward outlying tribes. From this period we already have some data to judge the forms of landed property. According to the levels of development of individual societies, these forms were not the same - from primitive collective to fully developed private ownership. But even in the most advanced societies, where there was not only the possession and use of land, but also all the main forms of alienation of land (donation, sale, inheritance), the state retained the right of ownership of uncultivated land, minerals and treasures, and the community - pastures and wastelands. In addition, both the state and the community retained the right to control all land transactions.

The most important evidence of technological progress is the development of handicrafts. There is a lot of information about the high level of development of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, blacksmithing, weapons and jewelry, cotton weaving, wood, stone and bone carving, pottery, perfumery, etc. In each village there were several artisans who satisfied the modest needs of fellow villagers in industrial products , but the main centers of concentration of craft, especially in the production of complex and high-quality products and luxury goods, were cities. Here, artisans settled according to their specialties and had their own unions - shreni, who represented before the authorities and protected artisans from arbitrariness. Many large workshops, in which both forced laborers and hired workers were employed, belonged to the tsar (shipyards, spinning, weapons, jewelry).

The development of material production and its specialization led to an increase in trade. There was also a natural regional specialization: Magadha was famous for its rice and metals, the north-west of the country - barley and horses, the south - precious stones, pearls and spices, the west - cotton and cotton fabrics; Some cities outside this area - Varanasi, Mathura, etc. - also distinguished themselves by cotton weaving. Merchants were rich and respected people; like artisans, they united in shreni.

The state received considerable income from trade and therefore contributed to it by maintaining order in the market, controlling measures and trade transactions, and laying roads. The sovereigns themselves were big merchants, and the trade in some goods was their monopoly. Trade continued to expand with the countries of Southeast Asia, Arabia, and Iran.

The development of trade led to the expansion of monetary circulation. This is indicated by the finds of treasures, sometimes containing thousands of coins.

The most common currency was the pan, which varied greatly in weight and composition in different states and at different times.

In the north-west of the country, foreign coins were also in circulation - Persian, Greek, Greco-Bactrian.

There is a lot of data on usury. The minimum debt growth was 15% per year, while the lower the debtor's Varna was, the higher the interest could be taken, up to 60% from the sudra. But even this figure could increase significantly if a loan was given in kind, and not in money, if it was not secured by collateral, and so on. Debt enslavement could entail partial or complete deprivation of the debtor's freedom.

From the time of the decline of the Indian civilization to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. we do not know of a single city that even remotely resembles Mohenjo-Daro or Harappa. But since that time, a new flowering of cities begins. Ancient collectors were surprised at the huge number of cities in India, sometimes citing implausible numbers. Many cities grew out of villages, especially conveniently located in terms of communications, security, and the availability of natural resources (water, ores, pottery clay, wood, etc.). Others were founded by the state and were originally strongholds, fortresses, administrative centers.

Many of these cities still exist, sometimes under other or heavily changed names - Indraprastha (modern Delhi), Pataliputra (Patna), Shakala (Sialkot), Purushapura (Peshawar), and sometimes under the same or only slightly changed - Varanasi, Kaushambi, Nasik, Mathura and others. Among them were very large ones. So, judging by what the Greeks tell about the capital of Magadha, Patalinutra, its area should have been 25-30 square meters. km and, therefore, the population could reach up to 1 million people. The organizational structure of cities and the possible degree of their autonomy have not been clarified.

As in any other country, slavery in ancient India had its own characteristics, but its fundamental provisions were also characteristic of India. The Indian dasa was a slave in the most precise sense of the word: he was someone else's property, had no right to the results of his labor, the owner could execute him at his own discretion; slaves, like any other movable property, were sold, bought, inherited, given, lost, mortgaged. From cattle, as "four-legged", slaves differed only as "two-legged". The owner had an unconditional right to the offspring of the slave, regardless of who was the actual father. A variety of life circumstances made adjustments to these basic provisions: sometimes slaves were involved as witnesses in court, they were often allowed to accumulate material resources necessary to pay a ransom, the situation of slaves varied significantly depending on the circumstances of enslavement, etc. But all this took place in other countries. The most important feature of ancient Indian slavery was the differences in the position of slaves and in the conditions of their liberation, which depended on their class-caste position before they lost their freedom.

The most abundant and constant source of slaves was, apparently, natural reproduction, i.e. the birth of slaves by female slaves. Such slaves were also the most convenient, since from childhood they got used to the slave share.

The enslavement of prisoners of war and camp servants captured by the victor, the capture of enemy slaves, and sometimes civilians, took place throughout the entire period of antiquity. Enslavement for debts, the sale and gift of oneself or the sale and gift of children and other free relatives became commonplace. They were also enslaved for certain crimes.

There were facts of abduction of people with the aim of enslavement, losing oneself to the free.

Slave labor was used in various spheres of the economy to an unequal extent. This depended on the specifics of production, on the number of slaves, on the strength of the state apparatus and its punitive organs, and much more. As a rule, the owners tried to use the labor of slaves in such jobs that provided permanent employment, ease of control, as well as those for which it was difficult to find free workers (especially difficult and dangerous work, ritually unclean, etc.). These conditions were most satisfied with work at home - threshing, cleaning grain and cotton, making flour, delivering water, caring for livestock, spinning, weaving, weaving, etc. less often than in large ones; in the latter, when listing the employed workers, slaves are invariably named first.

The performance of the duties of a domestic servant was also considered specific slave labor. Almost every even not very wealthy family had slave servants, and the houses of the rich were teeming with them - harem servants, palanquin carriers, messengers, gatekeepers, watchmen, cleaners, etc. The possession of such servants was considered necessary from the point of view of social prestige.

The existence of slaveholding relations did not exclude the existence of other forms of exploitation (rental relations, usurious bondage, hired labor in its form specific to antiquity), as well as social relations that were not at all based on exploitation. All of them experienced the influence of slavery, which ensured the maximum dependence of the exploited on the exploiter, necessary at that level of development of the productive forces. All relations in society were determined by the presence of slavery, by the fact that the exploitation of man by man in its most primitive and predatory form was established.

A person's personality became a commodity, even the younger members of the family were the object of commercial transactions. Accordingly, statehood changed due to the strengthening of punitive functions, ideology - due to the consecration of the power of the exploiters.

Slaves and slave owners were the two poles that determined the social structure of ancient Indian society. Between them were located, gravitating towards one or the other, the rest of the social strata. Thus, workers who lost their economic independence or civil rights and were forced to work for others inevitably formed intermediate social strata, in one way or another adjoining the class of slaves.

Every slave-owning economy strove to have as many slaves as it could use constantly. But the need for labor often changed (especially in agriculture from season to season), so the slave owners were interested in the presence in society of some kind of permanent reserves of cheap labor that could be used when it was needed and released. when it's not needed. Accordingly, it was possible to support such workers only during the period of work, and when they are not busy, they would have to take care of themselves.

In ancient India, such workers were called karmakars. They included everyone who was hired for a certain period - farm laborers, day laborers, itinerant artisans, even artists and doctors. Some household servants (not slaves) were also considered karmakars. Along with slaves, karmakars were widely used both in royal households (agricultural and handicraft), and in private - both large and small.

The Karmakars were not slaves, since they worked by agreement for a certain period of time and were paid according to the preliminary agreement. However, their work for others was a consequence not only of their good will, and even not only the result of poverty, but also non-economic coercion, primarily class-economic regulation, which predetermined that they were obliged to work for others in accordance with their social status and could not claim for more. Therefore, despite some outward resemblance to the proletarians of capitalist society, they cannot be considered free sellers of their labor power.

The actual relations between employers and karmakars were ultimately determined by the leading form of exploitation - slaveholding. Since slavery was for the ancient era the most complete and effective form of use of dependence, the owners sought to at least partially equate wage workers with slaves.

Both of them seemed to employers as a total mass of dependent people, only they bought some for a term, and others forever. At work and in everyday life, they were often not separated from each other, and karmakars were considered almost the same property of the owner as slaves. Just like slaves, karmakars during the period of the agreement could be subjected to physical punishment up to mutilation.

Separate groups of Karmakars were very different from each other. Some (for example, working off a debt, permanent laborers) were closer in their actual position to slaves, others (apprentices, wandering artisans, short-term mercenaries) - further, but it can be said about all that if they have not yet become slaves, then they are completely free. also cannot be counted. The social structure was greatly complicated by the presence of traditional forms of dependence (patronage, older and younger in the clan, indigenous and alien population), which are still little studied.

Characteristic of the social system of India was the existence throughout the entire period of antiquity of a numerous stratum of the communal peasantry. This was a layer of free workers who were not exploited, since they possessed all the basic means of production.

In the most developed parts of India, arable land was private property, although the community controlled its use and disposal. The management was carried out, as a rule, by the forces of one family, however, with the then level of technical equipment and in the specific natural conditions of India, these families had to constantly maintain production ties.

Fighting floods and droughts, clearing arable land, protecting people and crops, building roads - all this required a collective effort.

The peculiarity of the community as a production team was that it also included some non-farmers who served the common and private needs of the community members - potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, scavengers, watchmen, etc. This made the community an independent economic organism, little affected by .

At the same time, it was an autonomous civil organization with its own village gathering, headman, scribe, priest-astrologer, who led the communal cult. Most of the court cases that arose in the community were resolved by arbitration - a meeting of community members or a headman; only the most serious crimes were tried in the royal court. The state used the communal administration as the lowest link in the tax apparatus, entrusting it with the collection of taxes. Villages were often fortified: they were surrounded by a strong fence, and the community members were always ready to repel the attacks of robbers and marauders.

The communities had little to do with the political life of their state. The isolation of the community and the difference between the city and the countryside in political terms were also noted by the Greek Megasthenes (reported by Strabo): “The farmers are exempted from military service, their work is not disturbed by anything; they do not go to the city, they do not do any other business, they do not carry out any public duties.

A closed and stable community had a retarding effect on the development of society; remnants of communal ownership of land delayed the formation of private land ownership, property and social differentiation. Being an autonomous social organism, the community prevented the growth of the inter-district division of labor, commodity production and trade. A dense network of customs and traditions entangled the worker, causing inertia and technical stagnation.

The community, for all its strength, was not immutable. It was influenced by slavery, class-caste division, private property aspirations, slave-owning ideology. In different parts of the country, this impact was not the same. In the most developed states, the community itself began to act as a collective exploiter in relation to its slaves and servants and turned into a collective of small slave owners.

Although the ruling classes and the state strove to maintain the system of varnas in an unchanged state, varnas changed and adapted to new conditions. The basic principles have been preserved: the presence of four varnas, the inequality of their rights and duties, belonging to varnas by birth, the existence of important restrictions in communication between them. However, over time, the actual position and especially wealth becomes more and more important for assessing the social significance of a person.

This is especially noticeable in the frequent departure from traditional activities. The performance of priestly duties remains decisive for a Brahmin, but now Brahmins are farmers, shepherds, artisans, healers, healers and even servants. Only the Brahmin priests remained exempt from taxes, the rest paid them. Other ancient privileges (exemption from the death penalty and corporal punishment, bondage for debts) also extended to non-priest Brahmins to a lesser extent, and they eventually lost their Brahmin status.

In India, there were no temples and temple farms, there was no organization of brahmins even on a local scale. Consequently, there were no economic and political prerequisites for their supremacy in ancient Indian society, although the varna of the Brahmins was considered the highest. But the Brahmins, as ideologists of the ruling class, keepers and interpreters of ancient traditions, performers of cult actions, continued to occupy an important place.

The Kshatriyas were considered the second Varna due to their spiritual purity, but the military, political and economic power was in their hands. Yet here, too, changes can be found. Many Kshatriya families weakened, and their members became harem guards, bodyguards of nobles, and some traders and artisans. The well-born nobility is often pushed aside by the servants. This is especially evident in the example of the emergence of royal dynasties from other varnas, such as the Shudryan Nandas and the Brahmin Kanvas.

The stratification process also affected the cooking of vaishyas. Wealthy Vaishyas (especially from merchants) occupy places in the state apparatus as trade agents of the king, tax collectors, employees in the royal economy and treasury, etc. Such vaishyas made their way to the top of the slave society; the majority of them, as engaged in manual labor and constituting the main tax-paying estate, were getting closer and closer to the Shudras, whose social status was gradually rising.

The Sudras did not achieve equality. For them, there were restrictions in the choice of profession and place of residence, more severe punishments by the court, they were subjected to restrictions in religious rituals. And yet, although the authors of legal treatises did their best to emphasize the humiliation of the Shudras, their actual position changed, primarily because they constituted the main productive population of the growing cities. There are many examples of wealthy sudras hiring servants from twice-born and even brahmins. If even royal dynasties from the Shudras appear, then the more often there should have been facts of occupation by Shudras and a less noticeable, although previously unthinkable social position.

It is not for nothing that in many versions of the myth “About the Four Ages” it is bitterly stated (however, with the clear intention of exaggerating) that in the last sinful age of Kali, the Shudras become the main ones.

Culture.

Significant changes have taken place in the field of ideology. Since the death of the Buddha at the beginning of the 5th c. BC. Buddhism has undergone significant changes. According to legend, the first Buddhist council took place during the life of the disciples of the Buddha, and the charter of the monastic community (sangha) and the canon were formulated, taught in the form of Buddha's conversations, but it is not clear whether the charter and canon were already written down or only memorized. In any case, oral interpretations retained their significance for a very long time. The most ancient and most complete of the several existing Buddhist canons, revered by the most orthodox southern current, Theravada, was written down only in the 1st century BC. BC e., and no longer in the native ancient Indian dialect of Siddhartha Gautama himself, but in a later Pali language. Excerpts from another canon or canons have been preserved - in the Sanskrit original, and more often in translation into Tibetan, Chinese and other languages.

At the beginning of the IV century. BC. there has been a discrepancy between more orthodox, conservative philosophical Buddhism and openly religious movements, where the Buddha appeared already in the form of a deity, and not only the historical Siddhartha Gautama Buddha, but the mythical, supposed Buddhas of previous eras, each of which could be addressed with prayers for help . Both currents convened separate councils, and there were many "unorganized" oral interpreters of the doctrine.

Along with the Buddhist, there were other creeds that promised a path to salvation. Some, such as the teachings of Devadatta, broke away from primary Buddhism, others existed independently and perhaps earlier than Buddhism, such as Jainism. The Jains rejected the teaching of the Buddhists about the eternal variability of being and considered matter to be immutable, but, dividing it into “living” (where, in addition to organic life, they included fire, air, etc.) and “non-living”, like the Buddhists, they preached ahinsu - the prohibition to kill alive. One group of Jains, in their extreme asceticism, even rejected clothing; it is possible that even earlier than the time of Alexander the Greeks heard about her, who told about the “wise men” (gymposophists) of India, who were different from the Brahmins. There were also other teachings along with the traditional cults of the Vedic religion.

It was Buddhism, which actively denied ethnic, class and tribal differences, that turned out to be the most acceptable ideological basis for the empire, which destroyed traditional partitions with its existence. Along with the poor and outcasts to Buddhism since the 5th century. BC. the rich and the higher nobility began to adjoin.

The monastic communities received from them significant land and money donations (and at Buddhist councils, the acceptance of alms in gold was vainly proclaimed a sin). By the time the Mauryan empire was established, Buddhism already had many adherents. Ashoka himself adopted Buddhism (apparently in a more orthodox, "southern" form) and contributed to its spread in every possible way. Under him, the wanderings of Buddhist preachers outside the realm of the Mauryas begin. An important cultural achievement of the period under review was the widespread dissemination of literacy, especially among the townspeople.

Accurately dated written monuments date back to the 3rd century BC. BC, but it is so perfect that it assumes several centuries of preliminary development. Attempts to connect this letter with the writing of Harappa failed: apparently, it arose quite independently. At the same time, written literature appeared in different languages. Some religious texts are recorded (for example, the “Buddhist Canon”), collections of rules of everyday life and customary law (dharmasutra), which became the beginnings of legal literature, collections of instructions in politics, in particular, the main parts from the “Arthashastra” that has come down to us. As a result of the great importance that this literature (especially religious) acquired, linguistics developed. The works of the ancient Indian grammarians Panini (V-IV centuries BC) and Patanjali (II century BC) in their scientific level represent such a high achievement that scientists in no other country of the ancient world could approach .

The emergence of theater and dramaturgy can also be attributed to this time. It is known about the existence of professional singers, musicians, dancers, actors, organized into permanent troupes.

From the descriptions of the Greeks, we know about the existence of majestic buildings during the Mauryan period.

But the main building material in the Ganges valley was wood, and therefore few architectural monuments of this period have survived (only stone buildings have survived). Such are the buildings of the early period of the city of Taxila, the oldest cave temples (1st century BC) in different parts of the country, etc. the city of Varanasi with the image of four lions, is the emblem of the Indian Republic), the carved fence around the Great Stupa in the city of Sanchi, etc. testify to the technical and sculptural skill of ancient Indian sculptors. In connection with the development of Buddhism, the construction of stupas began - memorial structures of a barrow nature, intended for storing Buddhist shrines.

1. What was the most famous empire in Ancient India?

A. The Mauryan Empire. B. Empire of Justinian. C. The Empire of Alexander the Great.

D. Empire of Hammurabi.

2. “Which of the laws of the Ancient World gave the right to divorce if the wife

does not give birth to children in the eighth year; if she gives birth to children dead - on the tenth,

if she gives birth only to girls - on the eleventh, if she is obstinate - immediately "

A. Laws of the XII tables. B. The Constitution of Gaia C. Laws of Manu. D. Laws of Hammurabi.

3. Vaishyas, having scolded a Brahmin, are subject to the laws of Manu.

A. Corporal punishment. B. Death penalty. C. A fine of two and a half hundred (shares).

D. Penalty of one hundred (shares)

4. Kshatriyas, having scolded a brahmana, are subject to. Laws of Manu.

A. A fine of two and a half hundred (shares). B. Death penalty. C. Corporal punishment.

D. A fine of one hundred (shares).

5. Protecting a woman from attack, the guard of the sacrificial gifts killed

attacker. What punishment should he be subjected to according to the laws

Manu?

A. Such a person shall pay a fine to the king. C. Such a person commits no sin and is not subject to punishment.

C. Such a person commits a grave sin and should be subjected to severe

punishment with imprisonment. D. Such person shall be put to death

6. The usurer Tarba entered into an agreement with 12-year-old Sagga to sell him

an expensive bracelet given to her by her parents. Saggi's parents demanded

return of the bracelet, but the pawnbroker refused. How is this dispute resolved?

according to the laws of Manu?

A. Parents do not have the right to claim back the item sold. Q. Parents have the right to redeem the bracelet.

C. Parents can demand the return of the bracelet only if Sagta entered into a contract without their consent. D. The contract is void, the bracelet must be returned.

7. On what was the content of the Laws of Manu based.

A. On the laws of kings. B. On custom. C. On moral standards. D. On records of judgments.

8. A thief who steals at night, according to the Laws of Manu, must be:

A. Make amends and be subjected to corporal punishment. V. Executed. C. The degree of punishment is determined by its origin. D. Pay a fine and repair the damage caused.

9. According to what principle was the society divided in Ancient India?

A. According to the administrative-territorial principle. B. According to the principle of dividing society into slaves and slave owners C. According to the caste principle.

10. The responsibility that the brahmins bore for killing:

A. They carried repentance. B. They paid fines. S. They were sentenced to death.

11. The rite of "sati" meant:

A. The act of self-immolation of a widow. B. Divorce procedure. C. The coming of age of a Brahmin.

12. "Once-born" according to the Laws of Manu were recognized:

A. Vaishii. V. Sudras. S. Kshatriyas.

13. Not included in the varnas of Ancient India:

A. Brahmins. V. Chandala. V. Kshatriyas.

14. Which varnas were "twice-born":

A. Brahmins. V. Sudras. S. Kshatriyas. D. Vaishya.

15. Varnas and castes were they one and the same?

A. Yes. B. No.

16. Who participated in the government of the state:

A. Raja. V. Areopagus. S. Parishad. D. Galea.

17. What extenuating circumstances are highlighted in the Laws of Manu:

A. Break in the wall of the house. B. Night theft. C. The child committed theft. D. Extra large size.

C. A state of mental confusion.

18. Did the wife have the right to divorce:

A. Yes. B. No.

19. What punishment were the Brahmins subjected to:

A. The death penalty, but it can pay off. B. Fine. C. Hound dogs in a crowded square.

D. Shameful punishments.

20. What were the ancient Indian legal collections called:

A. Code of Laws. B. Ancient Indian Truths. S. Dharmashastra.

21. Make a comparative table on the Laws of Hammurabi and the Laws of Manu, comparing one of the proposed bases:

A) the institution of property: (methods of acquiring property rights, forms of ownership, restriction of the use of property, ways of losing property rights, ways of protecting property rights);

B) the institution of obligation: (the concept of obligation and contract, the conditions for the validity of the contract, the role of the state in contractual relations, types of contracts, termination of contracts);

C) marriage and family: (marriage features, conditions of marriage, rights and obligations of spouses, conditions for dissolution of marriage, legal status of children, inheritance of property);

D) crime and punishment: (concept of crime, classification of crimes, goals and types of punishments);

E) court and litigation: (judicial institutions, grounds for initiating a process, type of process, rights of the parties, evidence, appeals against decisions).

SAMPLE TABLE FOR GROUND "A": INSTITUTION OF PROPERTY.