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The structure of personality in terms of trait theory. Theories of personality traits

Last update: 13/03/2015

Another approach to defining personality is dispositional theories.

If someone asked you to describe the personality of your close friend, how would you do it? Descriptions like "sociable", "kind" and "balanced" immediately come to mind, don't they? All of these are character traits. What exactly does the term "feature" mean? A character trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes people to behave in a certain way. This approach to the characterization of personality is one of the main theoretical directions in the study of personality. The theory of personality traits suggests that the personality of each individual person consists of individual dispositions.
Unlike other theories of personality - such as, for example, psychoanalytic or humanistic - the dispositional approach to the study of personality is focused on the differences between people. The combination and interaction of various traits in each person forms a personality unique in all respects. Trait theories aim to identify and possibly measure these individual personality traits.

Dispositional theory by Gordon Allport

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport discovered in one of his dictionaries in English over 4,000 words used to describe various personality traits. In his classification, he divided these traits into three groups (dispositions):

Cardinal character traits- traits that dominate throughout the life of the individual; often to such an extent that a person becomes recognizable precisely because of these traits. People with pronounced features often become so famous that their names become synonymous with these qualities - hence such concepts as "narcissus", "alphonse", "don Juan", etc. appear in the language. Allport suggested that cardinal features are still rare and tend to show up later in life.
Central character traits. These are common traits that form the basic foundations of personality. These, although not as pronounced as the cardinal ones, are the main characteristics that we can use to describe another person. "Smart", "honest", "shy" or "restless" are just examples of central traits.
secondary features. They are most often associated with attitudes or preferences, usually appearing only in certain situations or under certain circumstances. Examples include the anxiety that a person has when they have to speak in front of a large audience, or the impatience that manifests itself while waiting in line.

Raymond Cattell's Sixteen Factor Model of Personality

One of the prominent psychologists in this area, Raymond Cattell, reduced the number of basic personality traits from more than 4000 (in Allport's original list) to 171 - mainly by eliminating atypical traits compiled by his predecessor, as well as combining the most general characteristics. Next, Cattell conducted an experiment - he asked the subjects to rate the people they knew using these signs. Then, using a statistical method known as factor analysis, he eventually narrowed down the list to just 16 top qualities. According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all personality diversity. He also developed one of the most widely used methods for assessing a person's personality, the 16-Factor Personality Inventory (16PF).

Three personal dimensions of Hans Eysenck

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Unlike many other theorists, R. Cattell's approach is based on the use of precise empirical research methods. Cattell's commitment to the construction of a scientific model of behavior was determined by the goal to reveal, using the method of factor analysis, the fundamental features that make up the core of the personality structure. The author believed that they determine what a person will do in a given situation. Like Allport, Cattell distinguishes between common and unique traits. However, from his point of view, traits have no real neurophysiological status and can only be detected by accurately measuring observable behavior.

Structure. Cattell's theory seeks to explain the complex interactions between the personality system and the larger sociocultural matrix of a functioning organism. R. Cattell sought to take into account a number of aspects in his theory: to highlight the numerous features that make up individuality; determine the degree of conditionality of these traits by heredity and the influence of the environment; identify the type of interaction between genetic and sociocultural factors that determine behavior. Building his theory on rigorous research methods and precise measurements, the author used multivariate statistics and factor analysis in the process of studying personality.

According to R. Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation. Being a supporter of the mathematical analysis of personality, he was of the opinion that the prediction of behavior can be carried out through specification equations. He derives a formula to predict behavior as accurately as possible:

where specific human response(R), expressed in actions or words, there is a certain function(f) from stimulating situation (S) at a particular point in time and from personality structures (P). The specification equation shows that the characteristic response to any situation is a function of the combination of all traits that are significant for this situation; with each trait interacting with situational factors that may affect it.

R. Cattell defines the categories of personality traits as some structural principles of personal organization. According to R. Cattell, personality traits are relatively constant tendencies to respond in a certain way in different situations and at different times. The spectrum of action of these tendencies is extremely wide. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics.

As a result of conducting multiple factor analysis procedures on data collected in the course of a study of thousands of subjects, the author comes to the conclusion that personality traits can be classified or categorized in several ways. Consider the principles of trait classification proposed by R. Kettell.

Surface features - initial features. surface feature is a set of behavioral characteristics that, when observed, appear in combination with each other (for example, the observed manifestations of inability to concentrate, indecision and anxiety can be closely related to each other and constitute a superficial feature of neuroticism). Since surface traits have no single basis and temporal permanence, Cattell does not consider them significant in explaining behavior. Initial features, on the contrary, are the fundamental structures, which, according to R. Kettel, form the blocks of the very building of personality. These are some combined values or factors that ultimately determine the constancy that is observed in human behavior. Source traits exist at a "deeper" level of personality and determine various forms behavior over a long period of time.

The basic structure of personality is formed by approximately sixteen initial traits(Table 7). These factors of personality traits formed the basis of the Sixteen Factor Personality Inventory methodology.

"Sixteen personality factors" (16 PF)

Table 7

Factor notation	Factor Name	Quality corresponding to a high score on a factor	Quality corresponding to a low score on a factor
A	Responsiveness-alienation	Good-natured, enterprising, cordial	Cynical, cruel, indifferent
B	Intelligence	Clever, abstract thinker	Stupid, concrete thinker
C	Emotional stability - emotional instability	Mature, realistic, calm	Unstable, unrealistic, out of control
E	Dominance-subordination	Confident, competitive, stubborn	Shy, modest, submissive
F	Discretion-carelessness	Serious, silent	Carefree, enthusiastic
G	Consciousness-irresponsibility	Responsible, moralistic, stoic	Disregarding the rules, negligent, fickle
H	Courage-timidity	Enterprising, uninhibited	insecure, withdrawn
I	Hardness-softness	self-reliant, independent	Clinging to others, dependent
L	gullibility-suspicion	Accepting terms	Stubborn to the brink of stupidity
M	Dreaminess-practicality	creative, artistic	conservative, down to earth
N	Diplomacy-straightforwardness	Socially savvy, smart	Socially awkward, unpretentious
O	Tendency to fear - calmness	restless, preoccupied	Calm, complacent
Q1	Radicalism-conservatism	free-thinking liberal	Respectful of traditional ideas
Q2	Self-sufficiency-conformism	Preferring own decisions	Unquestioningly Following Others
Q3	indiscipline-controllability	Following your own impulses	Punctual
Q4	Relaxation-tension	Restrained, calm	overworked, agitated

Constitutional traits are traits formed environment . According to Cattell, original traits can be divided into two subtypes depending on their source. Constitutional features develop from the biological and physiological data of the individual. Traits shaped by the environment, are due to influences in the social and physical environment. These traits reflect the characteristics and behaviors learned through the learning process and form the pattern imprinted on the individual by their environment.

Ability, temperament and dynamic traits. The original features, in turn, can be classified in terms of the modality through which they are expressed. Capabilities how traits determine a person's skills and his effectiveness in achieving the desired goal (intelligence, musical abilities). Temperament traits relate to other emotional and stylistic qualities of behavior (speed of nervous reactions). Dynamic features reflect the motivational elements of human behavior. These are traits that activate and direct the subject towards specific goals.

Common features are unique features. Like G. Allport, R. Cattell considered it appropriate to classify traits into common and unique. common feature- a trait that is inherent in varying degrees to all representatives of the same culture. Unique Traits are available only to a few, or even to one person at all; especially often they are manifested in the areas of interests and attitudes. Almost all of Cattell's research is devoted to common features, but his recognition of unique features makes it possible to emphasize the importance of the unique individuality of people. In addition, the organization of common features in a person is always unique in itself.

As already mentioned, R. Cattell's theory of personality is based on accurate empirical research conducted using factor analysis. The data for it were obtained from three main sources: real-life registration data (L-data), self-assessment questionnaire data (Q-data), and objective test data (OT-data). The first, L-data, are the results of measuring behavior in specific everyday situations. These data may also include personality assessments given by people who know the subject well in real life situations. Q-data is a person's self-assessment data regarding their behavior, thoughts and feelings. Such information reflects introspection and self-observation of the individual. To obtain Q-data, special self-assessment tests were developed, of which the sixteen personality factors questionnaire is the most well-known and used. OT-data, or experimental data, are obtained as a result of modeling special situations in which the actions of an individual to perform certain tasks can be objectively evaluated.

To reflect the complexity of the individual and create a multifaceted research strategy, Cattell finds it necessary to use multiple sources of data. This approach simultaneously takes into account various manifestations of personality parameters, but it does not allow the researcher to manipulate variables. Cattell argues that if such a multifaceted study as factor analysis is indeed able to reliably determine the functional blocks of personality, then the same factors or initial traits can be obtained from the three above-mentioned different types data. This logical statement assumes that each data source actually measures common and underlying personality traits.

Concerning the question of the degree of influence of personality traits on behavior, R. Cattell believed that one trait is stronger than the other if it has high loads in more patterns of behavioral manifestations. In this regard, factor A (responsiveness-alienation) is the strongest feature listed in Table. 7 because it has a greater influence on people's behavior in different situations than any other trait. Situations in which factor B (intelligence) is involved are not so numerous; and even fewer in which factor C (emotional stability) plays a significant role, and so on, throughout the list. Therefore, the strength of a trait is determined by its significance for the regulation of behavior in various circumstances.

Process and development. In his theory, R. Cattell made an attempt to determine the comparative contribution of heredity and the environment to the development of personality traits. To this end, he developed a statistical procedure, the Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis (MAVA), which evaluates not only the presence or absence of genetic influence, but also the degree to which traits are determined by genetic or environmental influences. This is a collection of data on various manifestations of similarity between identical twins who grew up in the same family; between siblings (brothers and sisters) who grew up in the same family; identical twins raised in different families and siblings who grew up apart. The results of applying the MAVA technique (based on the use of personality tests to assess a particular personality trait) show that the value of genetic and environmental influences varies significantly from trait to trait. For example, data indicate that about 65-70% of the variations in intelligence and self-confidence can be attributed to the influence of genetic factors, while the genetic influence on traits such as self-awareness and neuroticism is likely to be half as much. In general, according to Cattell, about two-thirds of personality characteristics are determined by environmental influences and one-third by heredity.

According to R. Cattell, in addition to the direct impact of situational factors, people's behavior is largely influenced by the groups to which they belong (family, church, peer groups, colleagues, school, nationality). By means of personality traits, one can describe not only individuals, but also the social groups of which they are members. The range of traits by which groups can be objectively characterized is called their synthality. No other personologist has done as much as Cattell in the direction of describing in detail the traits that characterize society as a whole, as well as studying the influence of these traits on human behavior.

Although R. Cattell was interested in questions of behavior and personality structure, he was also interested in process and motivation. His analysis of the sequences of actions that people take in specific situations, and the combined patterns of actions, led to the conclusion that human motivation consists of innate tendencies called ergs, and motives determined by the environment, which were named sentiment. Examples of ergs are security, sex, and self-assertion. Examples of sentiment are religious, career, and self-concept motivations. Behavior generally serves to satisfy several motives at the same time, and efforts to satisfy sentiments are made for the sake of more fundamental ergs, or biological goals. A person's actions at this particular moment will depend on his personality traits and motivational variables appropriate to the situation (see specification equation).

Norm, pathology and changes. In addition to his interest in the structure of the personality and the dynamics of its functioning, R. Cattell also conducted research in the field of psychopathology. He considered the question of pathology as a question of personality differences between groups of patients with different types diseases. Unlike G. Eysenck, who specialized in the application of behavioral therapy to pathological behavior, R. Cattell was not associated with any particular type of psychotherapy.

First of all, let's ask ourselves a question - what is a personality, and how does this concept differ from the concept of an individual (individual)?

Individual is the bearer of human biological qualities. The result of the development of an individual is his level of biological maturity: gender, age, nervous system, body geometry. A person is born as an individual, becoming a person in the process of socialization, i.e. in the process of going through the stages life cycle(childhood, adolescence, youth, etc.) and the accumulation of social experience.

Thus, Man as a subject consists of a personality and an individual.

The concept of personality has many interpretations. modern science characterizes a person as a subject of influence of internal and external factors, including biological and genetic characteristics, as well as social experience.

The concept of personality is manifested in the individual properties and actions of people. Individuality- that specific thing that distinguishes one person from others, while it includes both innate properties and acquired ones.

Individuality is manifested in the types of temperament, character traits, habits, interests, inclinations, etc.

Marketing value of personality:

The individuality of the individual is transferred to his consumer behavior;

The greater the consumer choice, the brighter the individuality of consumption is manifested.

Currently, psychologists have established about 650 personality traits. This confirms the fact that there is no single theory describing the behavior of the individual.

The following three theories of personality are best known:

1. Social Psychological Theory, according to which the personality is more influenced by the social and social environment, and not by instincts and subconscious forces.

In accordance with this theory, a person in relation to society can be of three types:

compliant type, which manifests itself in the need to follow someone, such people do not like loneliness, need guardianship and love, easily give in to someone else's opinion;

aggressive type, which manifests itself in the need to dominate, command, go against others;

a detached type - to be self-sufficient, independent, these people love loneliness, prefer to have their own opinion and do not try to impress others.

Marketing value of this theory - depending on the product and the target segment, take into account the features of each type when developing advertising.

2. Psychoanalytic theory of Z. Freud, according to which behavior is mediated by subconscious motives based on obtaining pleasure, the beginning and end of life. Personality is formed by personality.

Psychoanalytic theory is based on the postulate that personality consists of three components: ID, SUPEREGO and EGO.

ID is a source of passions that require immediate satisfaction;

SUPEREGO - represents moral and ethical standards and serves as a kind of limiter for the behavior of the individual;

EGO is a reasonable force, which is a link between ID and SUPEREGO.

A person's personality is determined by the unique combination of these forces, and especially by the force that has a predominant influence over the other two.

Marketing value This theory - psychoanalytic theory served as the basis for studying consumer behavior as a result of the manifestation of unconscious motives.

3. Feature Theory, according to which the behavior of the individual is determined by a set of personality variables (characteristics).

A characteristic is any noticeable and relatively enduring difference between one person and another.

Personality traits are either inherited or acquired early. The type of personality depends on which of these traits predominate.

At the same time, it is believed that the same character traits in varying degrees, are inherent in different individuals. Therefore, on the basis of characteristics, it is possible to segment the market of individual needs (for example, the segment of "thrifty buyers").

Marketing value of this theory - the marketer must look for a relationship between a characteristic feature of the consumer's personality and his specific behavior (and for this it is necessary to identify the most important characteristics that influence or determine consumer behavior).

Consumer personality is characterized by the following main factors(6 factors) - character, temperament, type of attitude to the environment, type of perception of information, memory and self-concept.

1. Character.

Character - a set of relatively stable acquired qualities that express a person's attitude to himself, other people, things, business and manifested in stable, habitual forms of behavior. By definition, character can be represented as separate systems:

1 system- character traits that reflect the attitude towards oneself (self-love, self-criticism, egocentrism, pride, etc.)

2 system- character traits that express attitudes towards other people (benevolentness, aggression, sociability, responsiveness, sympathy, tact, decency, etc.)

3 system- character traits that manifest themselves in the process of acquiring certain things (innovators, conservatives, adherents of the brand, etc.)

4 system- character traits that reflect the attitude to business (responsibility, inertia, diligence, etc.)

That is, character is the result of human interaction with the world.

Temperament.

Temperament is a trait nervous system of a person, due to innate dynamic properties that determine the speed of response, the degree of emotional excitability, and the features of an individual's adaptation to the world.

For the first time, Hippocrates gave a classification of types of temperament, later I.P. Pavlov gave an interpretation various features each type of temperament:

Choleric- a person who is distinguished by the speed of action, strong, quickly arising feelings, clearly reflected in speech, gestures, facial expressions. Unbalanced, sometimes aggressive. The excitatory mechanism prevails over the inhibitory one. Fast type of speech.

sanguine- characterized by high activity, energy. Sociable. In problem situations, he takes adequate decisions, well restrains his feelings, quick mind, high efficiency, easily switches, responds to real impressions more than to images and ideas in the past and future.

Phlegmatic person- balanced character, calm, even mood. Usually slow and reasonable, patient. Facial expressions and movements are not expressive, it is difficult to make him laugh or anger. Patient, self-possessed, but unresourceful, poorly adapts to a new environment, hardly rebuilds habits, it is difficult to acquire new ones.

melancholic- unbalanced character, low level of mental activity, slowness of movements, restraint of speech. The melancholic is distinguished by high emotional activity with a weak outward expression. The inhibitory process prevails over the excitatory one.

Marketing application of character traits- in personal selling, customer identification is essential for successful negotiations and establishing a long-term relationship with him.

Type of relation to the environment. (Table 7)

Relationship types include:

Introversion or extraversion

These concepts were introduced by G. Jung. They have to do with where you draw your energy from.

Introvert - a person who is not disposed to communication, prone to withdrawing “into himself”. The introvert is closed, rarely in companies, has few friends, but if they are, then he is faithful and trusts them, loves to read, play musical instruments, needlework, keep a personal diary. In new conditions (companies) it is not revealed immediately, he needs to get used to the situation, the environment.

Extrovert - active person, open to communication, sociable, talkative, cheerful, open to external influence, emotional, energetic, mobile.

It should be noted that both types are absolutely normal, if you understand their nature. Extroverts and introverts draw energy and strength in their own way. They are not encouraged to go beyond their preferences in relation to the environment for a long time, although both school and work encourage extroverts, stating: "Your grade will depend on how actively you work in the classroom." It should be remembered that if you are an introvert, you should seek to provide you with personal time for reflection - this is objectively necessary for you. Extroverts - such as we see them, they splash out their thoughts, feelings; and in the case of an introvert, what we see reflects their character only partially. Introverts do not begin to open up immediately, but only if they trust others or in exceptional circumstances.

Currently, ambiverts are also distinguished - closer to extroverts, but they communicate when they want.

Marketing value of the type of relation to the environment- independently - for a seminar, oral survey)

· Extroverts, having extensive information about the outside world, may be more critical of the seller's marketing efforts.

Type of perception and decision making. (Table 7)

People collect information about the world around them in two main ways: verbatim - sequentially and more arbitrarily. Depending on this, two types of perception of information are distinguished: sensory-sensing or simply sensory and intuitive.

People belonging to the sensory type prefer specific information, rely on collecting it only on what can be seen, heard, touched, focus on facts and details. The experience of others common sense are a criterion for the perception of information. Fantasizing is alien to them, they prefer "a titmouse in their hands to a crane in the sky."

People of the intuitive type collect information in an arbitrary way, sometimes “jumps”, look for their own meaning in it, relying on intuition, looking for indirect (not direct) relationships and meaning between various phenomena. They rely on an inner voice, regardless of how others react in such situations.

If two people collect information in different ways, then their future relationship is at risk.

Example:

Sensory. What time is it?

Intuitive. It's already late.

Touch (somewhat surprised). What time is it?

Intuitive (persistently). It's time to go.

Sensory (losing patience). Listen to what I'm asking. What time is it? I asked a specific question and I'm waiting for a specific answer.

Intuitive (confident in their rightness). You can't be so capricious. I told you, it's time to go, it's past three already.

The information you receive as a sensory or intuitive type leads to a decision or action. According to this criterion, logical and emotional types are distinguished.

Boolean type. When making a decision, a person prefers to be a logical analyst, impartial and objective, carefully analyzes all the facts, logically substantiating his decision.

emotional type. When making a decision, he relies on his subjective attitude to information, on a subjective assessment of the event, taking into account how this decision will affect others.

This scale is the only one of the personality typologies in which gender differences are noted: six out of ten men consider themselves to be a logical type, among women it is the exact opposite: 60% consider themselves to be an emotional category.

Marketing value of the type of perception of information and decision making.

Sensory people are more susceptible to the marketing environment than intuitive people. The intuitive type reacts to external influences indirectly, observing and analyzing inside itself the experience of consuming others;

· Focusing on the logical type, it is necessary to give specific information on the benefits or on the qualitative composition of your product, or on the consequences of its use;

for the emotional type, it is necessary to use the features of feelings (use of music, humor)

The functions of sociotypes are given in table 8.

Table 7

Table of sociotypes.

Criteria	Sociotype	Characteristic
1. Where does it get information from?	extrovert	Draws energy from the outside world Sociable, active The way we see him, his thoughts, feelings spill out
Introvert	Draws energy from within themselves They do not open immediately: they need to get used to the situation, the environment Needs personal time for reflection
2. How information is collected	Sensory	Verbatim and consistent Prefers specific information; when collecting information, it relies on what can be touched, seen, heard, smelled, focuses attention on details Accurate, specific information is important Experience of others, common sense - decision-making criteria
Intuitive	More arbitrarily, in leaps When collecting information, relies on intuition, looking for the hidden meaning of information
3. How he makes a decision	Logical	Objectively and impartially Analyzes all the facts, logically substantiating decisions
Emotional	Subjective and interpersonal Subjective assessment of facts, reality, taking into account the impact of this assessment on others Makes decisions in accordance with their feelings

Personality Trait Theory: Basic Concepts and Principles

Cattell's theory seeks to explain the complex interactions between the personality system and the larger sociocultural matrix of a functioning organism. He is convinced that an adequate theory of personality must take into account the many traits that make up personality, the degree to which these traits are determined by heredity and environmental influences, and how genetic and environmental factors interact with each other, thereby influencing behavior. He argues that an adequate theory of the functioning and development of the personality must necessarily be based on rigorous research methods and accurate measurements. His favorite methods of studying personality are multivariate statistics and factor analysis.

According to Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation (Cattell, 1965). Being a supporter of the mathematical analysis of personality, he was of the opinion that the prediction of behavior can be carried out through specification equations. The main formula used by Cattell to predict behavior with some degree accuracy has the form:

It is said here that the nature of a person's specific response (R), meaning what he does, or thinks, or expresses in words, is some indefinite function (f) of the stimulating situation (S) at a particular moment in time and of the personality structure (P) . The specification equation shows that the characteristic response to any situation is a function of the combination of all traits that are significant for this situation; with each trait interacting with situational factors that may affect it.

Cattell recognizes how difficult it is to predict the behavior of any person in a given situation. In order to increase the accuracy of the prediction, the personologist must consider not only the traits that the personality possesses, but also non-trait variables, such as the mood of the person in this moment and specific social roles required by the situation. Moreover, it is necessary to weigh each trait in terms of its significance in the situation under consideration. For example, if a person were in an emotionally exciting situation, then in predicting his response heaviest weight should be attributed to such a trait as anxiety. Therefore, the equation R = f(S, P) is a simplified extract of Cattell's theory of personality traits. However, from a cognitive point of view, we must not forget that this main formula confirms Cattell's conviction that human behavior can be determined and predicted.

Structural Principles: Categories of Personality Traits

Despite Cattell's assertion that behavior is determined by the interaction of traits and situational variables, his main organizing concept of personality lies in descriptions of the different types of traits he has identified. According to Cattell, personality traits are relatively constant tendencies to respond in a certain way in different situations and at different times. The spectrum of action of these tendencies is extremely wide. In other words, traits are hypothetical mental structures found in behavior that cause a predisposition to act in the same way in different circumstances and over time. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics and are by far the most important in Cattell's concept.

As noted earlier, Cattell relies heavily on factor analysis in his study of the structural elements of personality (Cattell, 1965, 1978). As a result of conducting multiple factor analysis procedures on data collected during the study of thousands of subjects, he concludes that personality traits can be classified or categorized in several ways. Consider Cattell's proposed principles for classifying traits (Kettel also uses the term factors).

Surface features are initial features.surface feature is a set of behavioral characteristics that, when observed, appear in an "inseparable" unity. For example, the observed manifestations of inability to concentrate, indecision and restlessness may be closely related to each other and constitute a superficial feature of neuroticism. Here neuroticism is confirmed by a set of interrelated visible elements, and not by any one of them. Since surface traits have no single basis and temporal permanence, Cattell does not consider them significant in explaining behavior.

Initial features, on the contrary, are the foundational structures that Cattell believes form the building blocks of the very building of personality. These are some combined values or factors that ultimately determine the constancy that is observed in human behavior. Source traits exist at a "deeper" level of personality and determine various forms of behavior over a long period of time.

After an extensive research work using factor analysis, Cattell (1979) came to the conclusion that the basic structure of personality is formed by approximately sixteen initial traits (Table 6-3). These personality trait factors are probably better known in connection with the scale now used to measure them: Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). This self-esteem scale and several others also developed by Cattell have proven to be extremely useful and popular in both applied and theoretical research. Below is a discussion of baseline traits assessed using the 16 PF Questionnaire.

Table 6-3. Main baseline traits identified using the Cattell Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16 PF)

Factor notation	Name of the factor according to Cattell	Quality corresponding to a high score on a factor	Quality corresponding to a low score on a factor
A	Responsiveness - aloofness	Good-natured, enterprising, cordial	Cynical, cruel, indifferent
B	Intelligence	Clever, abstract thinker	Stupid, concrete thinker
C	emotional resilience - emotional resilience	Mature, realistic, calm	Unstable, unrealistic, out of control
E	Dominance - subordination	Confident, competitive, stubborn	Shy, modest, submissive
F	Discretion - carelessness	Serious, silent	Carefree, enthusiastic
G	Consciousness - irresponsibility	Responsible, moralistic, stoic	Disregarding the rules, negligent, fickle
H	Courage - timidity	Enterprising, uninhibited	insecure, withdrawn
I	Hardness - softness	self-reliant, independent	Clinging to others, dependent
L	gullibility - suspicion	Accepting terms	Stubborn to the brink of stupidity
M	Dreaminess - practicality	creative, artistic	conservative, down to earth
N	Diplomacy - directness	Socially savvy, smart	Socially awkward, unpretentious
O	Tendency to fear - calmness	restless, preoccupied	Calm, complacent
Q1	Radicalism - conservatism	free-thinking liberal	Respectful of traditional ideas
Q2	Self-sufficiency - conformism	Preferring own decisions	Unquestioningly Following Others
Q3	Indiscipline - controllability	Following your own impulses	Punctual
Q4	Relaxation - tension	Restrained, calm	overworked, agitated

(Source: adapted from Cattell, 1965.)

Constitutional traits are traits shaped by the environment. According to Cattell, the original traits can be divided into two subtypes - depending on their source. Constitutional features develop from the biological and physiological data of the individual. For example, recovering from a cocaine addiction can cause sudden irritability, depression, and anxiety. Cattell could argue that such behavior is a consequence of changes in human physiology and thus reflects constitutional original traits.

Traits shaped by the environment, on the contrary, are due to influences in the social and physical environment. These traits reflect the characteristics and behaviors learned through the learning process and form the pattern imprinted on the individual by their environment. So a man who grew up on a Midwestern farm behaves differently from a man who has spent his life in the slums of the city.

Ability, temperament and dynamic traits. The original features, in turn, can be classified in terms of the modality through which they are expressed. Capabilities how traits determine a person's skills and effectiveness in achieving a desired goal. Intelligence, musical ability, hand-eye coordination are some examples of abilities. Temperament traits refer to other emotional and stylistic qualities of behavior. For example, people can work on some task either quickly or slowly; they may react to some kind of crisis calmly or hysterically. Cattell considers temperament traits as constitutional initial traits that determine a person's emotionality. Finally, dynamic features reflect the motivational elements of human behavior. These are traits that activate and direct the subject towards specific goals. So, for example, a person can be characterized as ambitious, striving for power or interested in acquiring material wealth.

Common features are unique features. Like Allport, Cattell (1965) is convinced that it makes sense to classify traits into common and unique. common feature is a trait that is present to varying degrees in all members of the same culture. For example, self-esteem, intelligence, and introversion are common traits. On the contrary, unique features- these are traits that only a few or even one person has at all. Cattell suggests that unique traits are especially common in areas of interest and attitudes. For example, Sally is the only person to assemble a collection of reports of infant mortality in Sweden and Canada in 1930. Very few people, if any, would share this interest.

Almost all of Cattell's research is devoted to common features, but his recognition of unique features makes it possible to emphasize the importance of the unique individuality of people. He also believes that the organization of common features in a person is always unique in itself. However, we should not exaggerate the significance of Cattell's recognition of the uniqueness of the combination of traits in each individual person. In fact, he was much more interested general principles behavior than the individual's personality.

Data sources for factor analysis

We have already noted that Cattell emphasizes the importance of factor analysis for determining the main personality traits. However, before proceeding to the factor analysis procedure, you must first collect a lot of data on a huge sample. Cattell draws its data from three main sources: real life registration data (L - data), self-assessment data when filling out questionnaires (Q - data) and objective test data (OT - data).

First, L - data, are measures of behavior in specific everyday situations, such as school performance or peer relationships. These data may also include assessments of personality characteristics given by people who know the subject well in real life situations (for example, employees). Q - data - it is, on the contrary, a person's self-assessments concerning his behavior, thoughts and feelings. Such information reflects introspection and self-observation of the individual. To obtain Q-data, Cattell developed special self-assessment tests, of which the sixteen personality factors questionnaire (Cattell et al., 1970) deserves the most attention. At the same time, he expresses certain doubts about this type of data: people do not always know themselves well enough, or they may intentionally distort or falsify answers. He warns researchers that self-reported data should be approached with caution. And finally OT - data are obtained as a result of modeling special situations in which the actions of a person to perform certain tasks can be objectively evaluated. Here, according to Cattell, the distinguishing feature is that a person is placed in invented "miniature situations", and he reacts without knowing by what criteria his answers are evaluated. For example, a person may be offered a Rorschach test that does not give the opportunity for any kind of fake. So, OT - data is hard to distort.

Identification of initial traits empirically. To reflect the complexity of the individual and create multifaceted research strategy, Cattell considers it necessary to use many sources of data. This approach simultaneously takes into account various manifestations of personality parameters, but it does not allow the researcher to manipulate variables. Cattell argues that if such a multifaceted study as factor analysis is indeed capable of reliably identifying functional blocks of personality, then the same factors or baseline traits can be obtained from the three different types of data mentioned above. This logical statement assumes that each data source actually measures common and fundamental personality traits.

Initially, Cattell subjected only L-data to factor analysis. He found 15 factors that seemed to the best way explained the personality of a person. Then he and his colleagues tried to determine whether such factors would be derived from the Q-data. Literally thousands of questionnaire items were developed, which were offered to a very large number of people to fill out, after which the data were subjected to factorization in order to find out the matching items. The result of this colossal research effort was 16 PF. The list of initial traits derived using "16 PF" is presented in Table. 6–3. In general, the factors found using the Q data were consistent with those found using the L data; only some of them turned out to be unique for both types of data. And in particular, the first 12 factors listed in Table. 6–3 occurred in both the Q-data and the L-data, while the last four factors derived from the Q-data did not match the L-data.

Concerning the degree of influence of personality traits on behavior, Cattell (1965) suggested that one trait is stronger than another if it has high loads in more patterns of behavioral manifestations (that is, a common set of traits that can be used to describe a person). Therefore, factor A (responsiveness - alienation) is the strongest feature listed in Table. 6-3, because it has a greater influence on the behavior of people in various situations than any other trait. Whether we are talking about such events as school performance, the effectiveness of secretarial work, the feat of a soldier or a successful marriage - in all these cases, factor A makes a very significant contribution to human activity. Situations in which factor B (intelligence) is involved are not so numerous; and even fewer in which factor C (emotional stability) plays a significant role, and so on, throughout the list. Therefore, the strength of a trait is determined by its significance for the regulation of behavior in various circumstances.

The role of heredity and the environment. Cattell's uniqueness as a scientist lies in the fact that he made an attempt to determine the comparative contribution of heredity and environment to the development of personality traits. To this end, he developed a statistical procedure - multidisciplinary abstract variant analysis(Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis, MAVA), which evaluates not only the presence or absence of genetic influence, but also the degree to which traits are determined by genetic or environmental influences (Cattell, 1960). This procedure involves the collection of data on the various manifestations of similarity between identical twins who grew up in the same family; between siblings (brothers and sisters) who grew up in the same family; identical twins raised in different families and siblings who grew up apart. The results of applying the MAVA technique (based on the use of personality tests to assess a particular personality trait) show that the significance of genetic and environmental influences varies significantly from trait to trait. For example, data indicate that about 65–70% of the variation in intelligence and self-confidence scores can be attributed to genetic factors, while genetic influences on traits such as self-awareness and neuroticism are likely to be half as large. . In general, according to Cattell, about two-thirds of personality characteristics are determined by environmental influences and one-third by heredity.

According to Cattell, in addition to the direct impact of situational factors, people's behavior is largely influenced by the groups to which they belong (family, church, peer groups, colleagues, school, nationality). By means of personality traits, one can describe not only individuals, but also the social groups of which they are members. The range of traits by which groups can be objectively characterized is called their synthality(syntality). Using factor analysis, Cattell (1949) studied the synthality of various religious, educational, and occupational groups. He also studied the group of traits that make up the synthality of entire nations (Cattell et al., 1952). The main features that identify the synthality of countries include the size of its territory, morale, wealth and degree of industrialization. No other personologist has done as much as Cattell in the direction of describing in detail the traits that characterize society as a whole, as well as studying the influence of these traits on human behavior.

Final comments

In terms of the breadth and scope of research in the field of personality, no doubt, Cattell deserves recognition as the most outstanding personologist of our time. His scientific and research activities have touched on almost all aspects of personality theory - structure, development, motivation, psychopathology, mental health and change. His efforts to construct a theory based on precision measurement techniques are truly impressive. As one of his followers notes, Cattell is worthy of every admiration: “It should be noted that Cattell's original program for the study of personality was the result of an extremely rich theoretical system, which has proven far more fruitful for empirical research than any other theory” (Wiggins, 1984, p. 190). However, unfortunately, Cattell's theory did not receive due appreciation from many personologists who studied the personality of a person, and, in fact, remained little known to the general public. Critics point out that Cattell's writings are written difficult language and difficult to understand. There is also criticism of his excessive commitment to factor analysis, as well as the subjectivity of his proposed formulations, interpretations and names of the main features obtained by the statistical method. Despite the lack of attention to his work and some well-deserved reproaches against him, Cattell remains a staunch adherent of his approach, which, in all likelihood, will enable us to understand the structure and functions of personality. We hope that this short review will serve as an incentive for students to become more seriously acquainted with Cattell's theory. We especially recommend the work he wrote as a final year student at the university - "The Scientific Analysis of Personality" (Cattell, 1965).

Cattell is by no means the only personologist who has devoted himself to the study of the basic structure of personality traits. Hans Eysenck also used factor analysis to identify a range of aspects needed to explain human behavior. Below we consider the theory of trait types, which completes our review of the dispositional direction in personality theory.

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According to Cattell, personality traits are relatively constant tendencies to respond in a certain way in different situations and at different times. The spectrum of action of these tendencies is extremely wide. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics and are by far the most important in Cattell's concept. He singled out:

1. Surface features - initial features. A surface feature is a set of behavioral characteristics that, when observed, appear in an "inseparable" unity.

2. Source traits, in contrast, are the foundational structures that Cattell believes form the building blocks of the very building of personality.

After extensive research using factor analysis, Cattell came to the conclusion that the basic structure of personality is formed by about sixteen initial traits. These personality trait factors are known in connection with the scale now used to measure them: the Cattell Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF).

3) Constitutional features - features shaped by the environment. Constitutional traits develop from the biological and physiological data of the individual. Traits shaped by the environment, on the other hand, are conditioned by influences in the social and physical environment.

4) Ability, temperament and dynamic traits. Abilities as traits determine a person's skills and effectiveness in achieving a desired goal. Temperament traits refer to other emotional and stylistic qualities of behavior. For example, people may work on a task either quickly or slowly; they may react calmly or hysterically to a crisis. Cattell considers temperament traits as constitutional initial traits that determine a person's emotionality. Finally, dynamic traits reflect the motivational elements of human behavior.

3. 4) Common features - unique features. Like Allport, Cattell is convinced that it makes sense to classify traits into common and unique. Common features are those that are present to varying degrees in all members of the same culture. For example, self-esteem, intelligence, and introversion are common traits. Conversely, unique traits are those that only a few or even one person have. Cattell suggests that unique traits are especially common in areas of interest and attitudes.

Question No. 41 Personality traits according to G. Eysenck

The essence of Eysenck's theory is that the elements of personality can be arranged hierarchically. There are certain super-traits or types in his schema, such as extraversion, that have a powerful influence on behavior. In turn, he sees each of these super-features built from several composite features. These component traits are either more superficial reflections of the underlying type or specific qualities inherent in that type. And finally, traits consist of numerous habitual reactions , which, in turn, are formed from specific reactions.

Consider the superfeatures highlighted by G. Eysenck.

Type E

Extrovert type.

Sociable, impulsive, lively, witty, optimistic.

introverted type.

Passive, secretive, thoughtful, pessimistic, peaceful.

The main level of differences between them is the level of excitation of the cerebral cortex, a psychological factor that is hereditary.

Type N

neuroticism - neuroticism

neuroticism- tend to overreact emotionally to excitement with difficulty returning to a calm state.

neuroticism- guilt, low self-esteem, irrationality, shyness.

Extraversion, neuroticism, introversion and neuroticism are statistically independent of each other, according to which people can be divided into 4 groups.

Stable introvert- calm, emotionally independent, reliable, peaceful, attentive, caring, passive.