Obsolete words are words that are no longer used in standard speech. Lexicographic analysis is used to determine whether a certain word is obsolete. He should show that now this word is rarely used in speech.

One of the types of obsolete words are historicisms, that is, designations of concepts that no longer exist. There are quite a lot of similar words among the designations of professions or social positions of a person that have ceased to be relevant, for example, one-palace, profos, scavenger, proviantmeister, postilion, potter. A huge number of historicisms denote objects of material culture that have gone out of use - horse-drawn carriage, splinter, chaise, bast shoes. The meaning of some words belonging to this category is known to at least some native speakers who recognize them without effort, but there are no historicisms in the active dictionary.

Archaisms are words that point to concepts that continue to exist in the language, for which another word is now used. Instead of "so that" they say "so that", instead of "from the beginning" - "from ancient times, always", and instead of "eye" - "eye". Some of these words are completely unrecognizable by those who encounter them, and thus they are already dropped out of the passive vocabulary. For example, the word "in vain" is not recognized by many as a synonym for "in vain." At the same time, its root has been preserved in the words “vanity”, “vainly”, which are still included, at least, in the passive dictionary of the Russian language.
Some archaisms have remained in modern Russian speech as components of phraseological units. In particular, the expression "cherish as the apple of an eye" contains two archaisms at once, including "the pupil", which means "pupil". This word, as opposed to the word "eye", is unknown to the vast majority of native speakers, even educated ones.

Words go out of active use and into passive vocabulary gradually. Among other things, the change in their status is due to changes in society. But the role of directly linguistic factors is also essential. An important point is the number of connections of this word with the rest. A word with a rich set of systemic connections of a different nature will go noticeably more slowly into a passive dictionary.
Obsolete words do not have to be ancient. Relatively recent words can quickly fall into disuse. This applies to many terms that appeared in the early Soviet era. At the same time, both initially Russian words and borrowings, such as "battle" (battle), "victoria" (meaning "victory", but not a female name), "fortecia" (victory) become obsolete.

Archaisms are divided into a number of categories depending on the nature of their obsolescence. The main option is archaisms proper-lexical, such words are completely outdated. For example, it is “like”, meaning “which” or “eye”, that is, the eye. Lexico-semantic archaism is a polysemantic word that is obsolete in one or more meanings. For example, the word "shame" still exists, but no longer means "spectacle." In lexico-phonetic archaisms, the spelling and pronunciation of the word has changed, but the meaning has been preserved. "Guishpan" (now Spanish) belongs to this category of archaisms. The lexical-derivational type of archaisms contains prefixes or suffixes that make this form obsolete. For example, previously there was a variant of the verb "fall", but now only "fall" is possible.

Obsolete words in modern written and oral speech can be used for different purposes. In particular, when writing historical novels, their presence is necessary for stylization. In modern oral speech, their function may be to enhance the expressiveness of what is spoken. Archaisms are able to give statements both solemn, sublime, and ironic.

You can see obsolete, rare and forgotten words in ours.

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Contemporaries of A. S. Pushkin, reading his works, perceived all the details of the text. And we, the readers of the 21st century, are already missing a lot, not understanding, we guess approximately. Indeed, what is a frock coat, a tavern, a tavern, a dressing gown? Who are the coachman, yard boy, excellency? In each story of the Pushkin cycle there are incomprehensible, obscure words in their meaning. But they all denote some objects, phenomena, concepts, positions, titles of a past life. These words have fallen out of modern usage. Therefore, their specific meaning to the modern reader remains unclear, incomprehensible. This explains the choice of the topic of my research, devoted to obsolete words that have left the modern language in Belkin's Tales.

The life of a language is clearly manifested in the constant changes in the composition of words and their meanings. And in the fate of individual words, the very history of the people and the state is imprinted. The vocabulary of the Russian language retains many words that are little used in live speech, but known to us from classical literary works, history books and stories about the past.

Obsolete words can be divided into two groups: 1) historicisms; 2) archaisms.

Historicisms (from the Greek historia - a story about past events) are words denoting the names of such objects and phenomena that ceased to exist as a result of the development of society. Many words that refer to objects of bygone life, old culture, things and phenomena associated with the economy of the past, old social and political relations have become historicisms. So, there are many historicisms among the words related to military themes: chain mail, pischal, visor, redoubt. Historicisms are many words denoting ranks, estates, positions, professions of old Russia: tsar, boyar, stableman, lackey, steward, zemstvo, serf, landowner, constable, ofenya, horseman, tinker, sawyer, lamplighter, barge hauler; phenomena of patriarchal life: corvée, dues, cuts, purchases; types of production activities: manufactory, horse racing; types of technologies that have disappeared: tinning, mead making.

Archaisms (from the Greek archaios - ancient) are words that have become obsolete due to their replacement with new ones, for example: cheeks - cheeks, loins - lower back, right hand - right hand, tuga - sadness, verses - poems, ramen - shoulders. All of them have synonyms in modern Russian.

Archaisms can differ from the modern synonymous word in different ways: a different lexical meaning (guest - merchant, stomach - life), a different grammatical design (perform - perform, at a ball - at a ball), a different morphemic composition (friendship - friendship, fisherman - fisherman ), other phonetic features (Gishpan - Spanish, mirror - mirror). Some words become obsolete entirely, but have modern synonyms: in order - in order, destruction - death, harm, hope - hope and firmly believe. Archaisms and historicisms are used in fiction to recreate the historical situation in the country, to convey the national and cultural traditions of the Russian people.

DICTIONARY OF OBSOLETE WORDS

From the publisher

Corvee is free forced labor of a dependent peasant, “Ivan Petrovich was forced to abolish corvée and establish a gentleman who works very hard with his own equipment on the farm. moderate quitrent"

Quit - the annual collection of money and products from serfs by landowners.

The housekeeper is a servant in the landowner's house, who was entrusted with the keys to “he entrusted the management of the village to his old housekeeper, who acquired his storage of food supplies. confidence in the art of storytelling. »

Second major - military rank of the 8th class in 1741-1797. “His late father, second Major Pyotr Ivanovich Belkin, was married to a girl, Pelageya Gavrilovna, from the Trafilin family. »

"Shot"

A banker is a player who holds the bank in card games. “The officer went out, saying that he was ready to answer for the insult, as Mr. banker would like”

“The game went on for a few more minutes; but feeling that the owner was

Vacancy - an unoccupied position; position. not up to the game, we fell behind one by one and dispersed to our apartments, talking about an imminent vacancy. »

Galloon - a golden braid or silver (ribbon), which was sewn on “Silvio got up and took out a red hat with a golden tassel from cardboard, with uniforms. galloon"

"Throw the Bank" (spec.). - reception of a card game. “For a long time he refused, because he almost never played; Finally, he ordered the cards to be brought in, poured out fifty chervonets on the table, and sat down to throw them. »

Hussar - a soldier from light cavalry units, wearing the uniform of the Hungarian "Once he served in the hussars, and even happily"

A footman is a servant under the masters, as well as in a restaurant, a hotel, etc. “The footman brought me into the count's office, and he himself went to report on me. »

Arena - a platform or a special building for training horses and The life of an army officer is known. In the morning, teaching, arena; lunch at horseback riding lessons. regimental commander or in a Jewish tavern; in the evening punch and cards.

Punter - in gambling card games: playing against the bank, i.e. “If the punter happened to miscalculate, then he immediately paid them extra by making big bets; one who pontes in a gambling card game. dostalnoe, or wrote down too much. »

Lieutenant - an officer rank above the rank of second lieutenant and below Unter - officer - the rank of junior command staff in the tsarist army of the captain. Russia, in some modern foreign armies; the person who bears this title.

This (this, this) places. - this, this, this. "With this word, he hurried out"

Excellency - the title of princes and counts (from the locality. Yours, him, her, them) “-Oh,” I remarked, “in this case, I bet that your Excellency will not get into the map and twenty steps away: the pistol requires daily exercise .

Frock coat and frock coat - long men's double-breasted waist-length clothing with a turn-down "walking forever on foot, in a worn black frock coat"

or stand-up collar.

Chervonets is the common name for foreign gold coins in the pre-Petrine “For a long time he refused, because he almost never played; finally ordered

Russia. hand the cards, poured fifty chervonets on the table and sat down to throw. »

Shandal - candlestick “The officer, inflamed with wine, play and laughter of his comrades, considered himself severely offended and, furiously grabbing a copper shandal from the table, let it into Silvio, who barely managed to deviate from the blow. »

Eterist - in the second half of the 18th-early 19th century: a member of the secret Greek “It is said that Silvius, during the indignation of Alexander Ypsilant, a revolutionary organization that fought for the liberation of the country from led a detachment of etherists and was killed in a battle under Turkish oppression. Skulyans. »

"Blizzard"

Boston is a card game. “Neighbors used to come to him every minute to eat, drink, play five kopecks in Boston with his wife”

Verst - an old Russian measure “The coachman decided to go by the river, which should have shortened our path of length equal to 1.06 km. ". three versts. »

Red tape - delaying a case or solving some issue. “What was holding him back? Timidity, inseparable from true love, pride or coquetry of cunning red tape?

The maid is a maid under the mistress. “Three men and a maid supported the bride and were busy only

The police captain is the chief of police in the county. “After dinner, the land surveyor Schmitt, in mustaches and spurs, and the son of the police captain, appeared. »

Kibitka is a covered road wagon. “I turned around, left the church without any obstacle, threw myself into the wagon and shouted: “Let's go!”

Cornet is the lowest officer rank. "The first to whom he appeared, a retired forty-year-old cornet Dravin, readily agreed"

The porch is a covered area in front of the entrance to the church. “The church was open, there were several sleighs behind the fence; people were walking along the porch. »

Signet - a home seal on a ring or keychain. “Having sealed both letters with a Tula seal, which depicted

Signet - a small seal on a ring, keychain with initials or two flaming hearts with a decent inscription, she (Maria Gavrilovna)

some other sign. Used to seal letters threw herself on the bed just before dawn and dozed off. »

sealing wax or wax and served as an indication of the sender.

Ensign - the most junior officer rank. "The subject chosen by her was a poor army ensign who was on leave in his village."

Lancer - in the armies of some countries, a soldier, an officer of light cavalry, “a boy of about sixteen, who recently entered the lancers. »

armed with a spear, a saber.

Shlafor - a dressing gown. “The old people woke up and went into the living room. , Praskovya Petrovna in a cotton dressing gown. »

Grand solitaire - laying out a deck of cards according to certain rules. "The old lady was once sitting alone in the living room, laying out grand solitaire"

A cap is a headdress of a pointed shape, which in the old days of a man "Gavrila Gavrilovich in a cap and a flannelette jacket"

worn at home and often worn at night. ; sleeping cap.

"Undertaker"

Cupid is the god of love in ancient mythology, depicted as a winged one. “There was a signboard above the gate depicting a portly boy with a bow and arrows. Cupid with an overturned torch in his hand. »

Announce - notify bell ringing about church service. “No one noticed it, the guests continued the thread, and they were already announcing the vespers when they got up from the table.

Treads - boots with a wide top. ". the bones of the legs thrashed about in large boots like pestles in mortars. »

Brigadier - in the Russian army of the 18th century. : military rank 5th class (according to the Table of “Tryukhina, the brigadier and sergeant Kurilkin vaguely introduced themselves in ranks); the person holding this rank. his imagination."

Budochnik - a policeman who carried guard duty in the booth. “Of the Russian officials there was one watchman”

Vespers is a church service for Christians, performed in the afternoon. ". the guests continued to drink, and they already announced the gospel for Vespers.

Gaer - in folk games, a public jester, clowning and making faces in “Is the undertaker a gaer a Christmas one?”.

Christmas time;

A hryvnia is a coin worth ten kopecks. “The undertaker gave him a dime for vodka for that, dressed hastily, took a cab and drove to Razgulay. »

Drogi - a wagon for transporting the dead. "The last belongings of the undertaker Adrian Prokhorov were heaped on the funeral dross"

Kaftan - an old men's long-brimmed top "I will not describe any of the Russian caftan of Adrian Prokhorov"

Kiot, kivot, kiot (from Greek - box, ark) - a special decorated locker “Soon, order was established; kivot with images, cupboard with

(often folding) or glazed shelf for icons. dishes, a table, a sofa and a bed occupied certain corners in the back room for them.

The mantle is a wide long garment in the form of a cloak” “in the kitchen and living room the owner's products fit: coffins of all colors and sizes, as well as cupboards with mourning ribbons, mantles and torches. »

To evangelize - stop, stop evangelizing. “You feasted with a German all day, came back drunk, collapsed in bed, and slept until this hour, as they announced the Annunciation for mass.”

A contractor is a person who undertakes under a contract to perform a specific job. “But Tryukhina was dying on Razgulay, and Prokhorov was afraid that her heir, despite his promise, would not be too lazy to send for him so far away and would not bargain with the nearest contractor. »

Rest - 1. Sleep, fall asleep; "You deigned to rest, and we did not want to wake you."

2. Translated. Rest.

Svetlitsa - bright living room; front room in the house; small “The girls went to their room. ".

bright room at the top of the house.

An ax - an old edged weapon - a large ax with a semicircular blade, on “Yurko again began to pace around her with an ax and in armor with a long western handle. »

Sermyaga - coarse homespun undyed cloth: a caftan from this cloth. “Yurko again began to pace around her with an ax and in homespun armor. »

Chukhonets - this is how Finns and Estonians were called until 1917. “Of the Russian officials there was one watchman, Yurko the Chukhonian, who knew how

Acquire the special favor of the owner.

"Station Master"

The altar is the main elevated eastern part of the church, fenced off “He hastily entered the church: the priest was leaving the altar. »

iconostasis.

Altar - in ancient times among many peoples: a place where sacrifices were burned and in front of which rituals related to sacrifice were performed. Used figuratively and in comparison.

Banknote - a paper banknote issued in Russia from 1769 to ". he took them out and unrolled several five and ten ruble

1849 , in the official language, before the introduction of credit notes; one ruble of crumpled banknotes"

silver was equal to 3 1/3 rubles in banknotes.

The Prodigal Son is a gospel parable about the recalcitrant prodigal son, who “They portrayed the story of the prodigal son. »

left home, squandered his share of the inheritance, after wandering he returned with repentance to his father's house and was forgiven.

High nobility - according to the Table of Ranks, the title of civil ranks with "Early in the morning he came to his front room and asked to report to him eighth to sixth grade, as well as officers from captain to colonel and high nobility"

“Taking off his wet, shaggy hat, letting go of his shawl and pulling off his overcoat,

The visiting hussar of the higher cavalry appeared to be a young, slender hussar with a black mustache.

Drozhki - a light two-seater four-wheeled open carriage on short "Suddenly a smart droshky rushed in front of him"

drags instead of springs.

Deacon - a clergyman in the Orthodox Church; church reader, “the deacon put out the candles. »

acolyte; also taught literacy.

Assessor - an elected representative in court to work in any “Yes, there are few travelers: unless the assessor wraps up, but that is not up to another institution. the dead. »

A tavern is a drinking establishment of one of the lowest ranks for sale, and “It used to be that he came from a tavern, and we followed him. »

drinking alcoholic beverages.

Cap - a headdress of a pointed or oval shape. "The old man in the cap and dressing gown lets the young man go"

Footman - servant in the house, restaurant, hotel.

Obluchok - the front of the cart, sleigh, wagon; seat for the coachman in the antechamber. The servant jumped up on the box. »

The porch is a covered area in front of the entrance to the church. “Approaching the church, he saw that the people were already dispersing, but Dunya was not there.

Not in the fence, not on the porch. »

Cross-country - a carriage with horses that are replaced at post stations. "I rode on relays"

Podorozhnaya - a document that gave the right to use post horses; “In five minutes - the bell!. and the courier throws him a travel certificate. his travel table. »

Rest - 1. Sleep, fall asleep; “A military lackey, cleaning a boot on a block, announced that the master

2. Translated. Rest. rests and that before eleven o'clock does not receive anyone. »

The postmaster is the manager of the post office. “The caretaker asked the Postmaster S*** for a vacation for two months”

Runs - per-versal fare on post horses. ". paid runs for two horses. »

The captain is a senior officer rank in the cavalry “Soon he learned that captain Minsky was in St. Petersburg and lives in

Demuth tavern. »

Skufya, skufeika - 1. A single-colored (black, lilac, Minsky came to you in a dressing gown, in a red skufya. “What do you need purple, etc.) hat of Orthodox priests, monks. 2. Is the round necessary?” he asked.

cap, skullcap, yarmulke, headdress.

The overseer is the head of an institution. “The weather is unbearable, the road is bad, the stubborn coachman does not carry horses - and the caretaker is to blame. »

Frock coat (sertuk) - long men's double-breasted clothing with a standing "and his long green frock coat with three medals"

collar

Taurus - a young bull "the cook kills a well-fed calf"

A tavern is a hotel with a restaurant. “Soon he learned that Captain Minsky was in St. Petersburg and lives in

Demuth tavern. »

Non-commissioned officer - the rank of junior command staff in the tsarist army of Russia. “I stopped in the Izmailovsky regiment, in the house of a retired non-commissioned officer. »

Courier - in the old army: military or government courier for "In five minutes - a bell!. and the courier throws him to deliver important mostly secret documents. his travel table. »

The kingdom of heaven is a rhetorical wish for the deceased to have a happy fate in “It happened (the kingdom of heaven to him!), Comes from a tavern, and we are beyond the grave. him: “Grandpa, grandpa! nuts! - and he gives us nuts. »

Chin - assigned to civil servants and military rank according to the Table “I was in a small rank, rode on relays and paid runs on ranks, associated with the provision of certain class rights and for two horses. »

benefits.

Dressing gown "rka and walked" for - a dressing gown. "The old man in the cap and dressing gown lets the young man go"

SHLAFROK or dressing gown m. German. bathrobe, sleeping clothes. Most often, it serves as home clothes for nobles.

SHLAFROK - originally a "sleeping garment" (from German), and then the same as a dressing gown. Although they didn’t go out into the street and visit in dressing gowns, they could look very smart, sewn for show.

The coachman is a coachman, a driver on postal, pit horses. “The weather is unbearable, the road is bad, + stubborn horses are not driven -

it's the caretaker's fault. »

"Young lady-peasant"

Blancmange - milk jelly with almonds and sugar. “Well, we left the table. and we sat for about three hours, and the dinner was glorious: a blancmange cake, blue and striped. »

Burners are a Russian folk game in which the one in front caught others “So we left the table and went into the garden to play burners, and the participants who ran away from him alternately in pairs. the young gentleman here also appeared. »

Dvornya - a servant at the manor's house, courtyard; courtyard people (unlike "Ivan Petrovich Berestov went for a walk on horseback, for every peasant who lived in the village and was engaged in agriculture). case, taking with him a pair of three greyhounds, a groom and several

Yard - belonging to the household, belonging to the household. yard boys with rattles. »

Drozhki - a light two-seater four-wheeled open carriage on short "Muromsky asked Berestov for a droshky, for he admitted that he used drogues instead of springs. from a bruise, not a bull, he is able to drive home in the evening. »

Jockey - rider at the races; servant on horseback. "His grooms were dressed as jockeys."

Zoil is a captious, unkind, unfair critic; vicious “He was furious and called his Zoil a bear and a provincial. »

detractor.

Valet - the master's house servant, lackey. "That's right," answered Alex.

I am the young gentleman's valet. »

Chinese dense fabric, originally silk, made in China, "(Liza) sent to buy thick linen at the market, then blue cotton, made in Russia for sundresses and men's Chinese and copper buttons"

shirts. , usually blue, rarely red. Used in peasant life

Knixen and Knix - adopted in the bourgeois-gentry environment for girls and “Unfortunately, instead of Lisa, old Miss Jackson came out, whitewashed, the girls bowed with a squat as a sign of gratitude, greeting; tightened, with downcast eyes and with a small knix. »

curtsy.

Livery - uniform for lackeys, porters, coachmen, decorated "Old Berestov ascended the porch with the help of two livery galloons and embroidery. footmen of Murom. »

Livery - 1. App. to the livery, which was the livery. 2. Dressed in livery.

Madame - the name of a married woman, attached to the surname; “Her playfulness and minute-by-minute pranks delighted her father and brought her to mistress. It was usually used in relation to a Frenchwoman, and the desperation of her Madame Miss Jackson was used. »

- and to a Russian woman from privileged strata.

Miss is an unmarried woman in England. Her playfulness and minute-by-minute orders delighted her father and drove her Madame Miss Jackson to despair.

The confidante is about a woman who enjoyed special trust and “There she changed clothes, absently answering questions with the impatient favor of someone; favorite, lover. confidante, and came into the drawing-room."

Antimony - make up, draw with antimony, i.e. popular from the most ancient “Lisa, his swarthy Liza, was whitened up to her ears, darkened more than ever cosmetic, compiled on the basis of antimony, by Miss Jackson herself. »

giving it a special sheen.

Okolotok - 1. Surrounding area, surrounding villages. 2. A resident of the district, “He built a house according to his own plan, got himself a lawful neighborhood, the surrounding area. factory, arranged income and began to consider himself the smartest person

3. District of the city, subordinated to the district warden. all around"

4. Medical station (usually at a military unit).

Board of Trustees - an institution in Russia that was in charge of guardianship affairs, ". the first of the landlords of his province guessed to mortgage educational homes, some credit transactions related to the estate to the Board of Trustees "

pledges of estates, etc.

Plis - cotton velvet. In a noble environment, it was used for “On weekdays he walks in a plush jacket, on holidays he put on a home suit, merchants and rich peasants sewed an elegant coat from homemade cloth from him”

Poltina - a silver coin equal to 50 kopecks, half a ruble. Minted with "Trofim, passing in front of Nastya, gave her small colorful bast shoes

1707 and received from her a half as a reward. »

Polushka - from the 15th century a half-money silver coin (i.e. ¼ “I will sell and squander, and I won’t leave you a penny.”

pennies); the last silver coins were put into circulation in

Frock coat - long men's double-breasted clothing with a standing collar "On weekdays he walks in a plush jacket, on holidays he puts on a frock coat made of homemade cloth"

A clerk is an official who manages a table. “The neighbors said in agreement that he would never make the right head clerk. »

Stremyanny is a groom, a servant caring for his riding horse, “Ivan Petrovich Berestov went for a walk on horseback, for every master, as well as a servant accompanying the master during the hunt. case, taking with him a pair of three greyhounds, a stirrup, and several yard boys with rattles. »

Tartinki - a thin slice of bread, buttered; small sandwich. “The table has been set, breakfast is ready, and Miss Jackson. cut into thin slices. »

Figma - a wide frame made of whalebone, wicker or wire, "sleeves sticking out like Madame de Pompadour's tanja"

worn under a skirt to add splendor; skirt on such a frame.

A courtier is a nobleman at the royal court, a courtier. “The dawn was shining in the east, and the golden rows of clouds seemed to be waiting for the sun, as courtiers are waiting for the sovereign. »

Chekmen - men's clothing of the Caucasian type - a cloth semi-caftan at the waist with shirring at the back. ". he saw his neighbor, proudly sitting on horseback, in a chekmen lined with fox fur, ”

IV. Conclusion

The "Dictionary of obsolete words" contains 108 dictionary entries, both historicisms and archaisms. It contains those words that are not currently used or are used extremely rarely in the living literary language, as well as words that are used today, but have a different meaning, unlike the one we put into it.

The dictionary entry reveals the meaning of obsolete words; examples from the stories of the Pushkin cycle show how they functioned in speech. The created dictionary, which includes both historicisms and archaisms, will help to overcome the barrier between the reader and the text, erected by obsolete words sometimes incomprehensible or misunderstood by the reader, to perceive the text of Belkin's Tale thoughtfully and meaningfully. Some dictionary entries are accompanied by drawings that make it possible to realistically imagine objects called by one word or another.

The remarkable poet, outstanding translator V. A. Zhukovsky wrote: “The word is not our arbitrary invention: every word that gets a place in the lexicon of the language is an event in the field of thought.”

This work will become an assistant in reading, studying, comprehending the Pushkin cycle of Belkin's Tales, broadening the reader's horizons, helping to arouse interest in the history of words, it can be used in literature lessons.

Vocabulary is the totality of all the words that we use. separate group vocabulary can be counted as old words. There are many of them in the Russian language, and they belong to different historical eras.

What are old words

Since the language is an integral part of the history of the people, the words that are used in this language are of historical value. Ancient words and their meaning can tell a lot about what events took place in the life of the people in a particular era and which of them had great importance. Old, or obsolete, words are not actively used in our time, but are present in the vocabulary of the people, recorded in dictionaries and reference books. Often they can be found in works of art.

For example, in the poem by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin we read the following passage:

"In the crowd of mighty sons,

With friends, in a high grid

Vladimir the sun feasted,

He gave away his younger daughter

For the brave prince Ruslan."

There is a word "gridnitsa" here. Now it is not used, but in the era of Prince Vladimir it meant a large room in which the prince, along with his warriors, arranged festivities and feasts.

historicisms

Ancient words and their designation are different kind. According to scientists, they are divided into two large groups.

Historicisms are words that are not actively used now for the reason that the concepts they designate have fallen out of use. For example, "caftan", "chain mail", armor, etc. Archaisms are words that denote concepts familiar to us in other words. For example, mouth - lips, cheeks - cheeks, neck - neck.

AT modern speech usually they are not used. which are incomprehensible to many, are not typical for our everyday speech. But they are not completely out of use. Historicisms and archaisms are used by writers in order to truthfully tell about the past of the people, with the help of these words they convey the flavor of the era. Historicisms can truthfully tell us about what happened at one time in other epochs in our homeland.

Archaisms

Unlike historicisms, archaisms designate those phenomena that we encounter in modern life. These are clever words, and their meanings do not differ from the meanings of words familiar to us, only they sound different. Archaisms are different. There are those that differ from ordinary words only in some features in spelling and pronunciation. For example, hail and city, gold and gold, young - young. These are phonetic archaisms. There were many such words in the 19th century. This is a club (club), a store (curtain).

There is a group of archaisms with obsolete suffixes, for example, museum (museum), assistance (assistance), fisherman (fisherman). Most often we meet lexical archaisms, for example, eye - eye, right hand - right hand, shuytsa - left hand.

Like historicisms, archaisms are used to create a special world in fiction. So, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin often used archaic vocabulary to give pathos to his works. This is clearly seen in the example of the poem "Prophet".

Words from Ancient Russia

Ancient Russia gave a lot to modern culture. But then there was a special lexical environment, some words from which were preserved and in A some are no longer used at all. Old obsolete Russian words from that era give us an idea of ​​the origin

For example, old curses. Some of them very accurately reflect the negative qualities of a person. Hollow-breech is a talker, Ryuma is a crybaby, Tolokon forehead is a fool, Zakhukhrya is a disheveled person.

The meaning of old Russian words sometimes differed from the meanings of the same root in modern language. We all know the words "jump" and "jump", they mean rapid movement in space. The old Russian word "sig" meant the smallest unit of time. One moment contained 160 whitefish. The largest measurement value was considered "far distance", which was equal to 1.4

Ancient words and their meanings are discussed by scholars. The names of the coins that were used in Ancient Russia. For coins that appeared in the eighth and ninth centuries in Russia and were brought from there, the names “kuna”, “nogata” and “reza” were used. Then the first Russian coins appeared - these are golden coins and silver coins.

Obsolete words from the 12th and 13th centuries

The pre-Mongol period in Russia, 12-13 centuries, is characterized by the development of architecture, which was then called architecture. Accordingly, then a layer of vocabulary appeared, associated with the construction and erection of buildings. Some of the words that appeared then have remained in the modern language, but the meaning of the old Russian words has changed over all this time.

The basis of the life of Russia in the 12th century was a fortress, which then had the name "detinets". A little later, in the 14th century, the term “Kremlin” appeared, which at that time also meant the city. The word "kremlin" can be an example of how old obsolete Russian words are changing. If now there is only one Kremlin, it is the residence of the head of state, then there were many Kremlins.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, cities and fortresses were built in Russia from wood. But they could not resist the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars. The Mongols, having come to conquer the lands, simply swept away the wooden fortresses. Novgorod and Pskov resisted. For the first time the word "Kremlin" appears in the chronicle of Tver in 1317. Its synonym is the old word "silicon". Then the Kremlin was built in Moscow, Tula and Kolomna.

Socio-aesthetic role of archaisms in classical fiction

Ancient words, which are often discussed in scientific articles, were often used by Russian writers in order to make the speech of their work of art more expressive. Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin in his article described the process of creating "Boris Godunov" as follows: "I tried to guess the language of that time."

Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov also used ancient words in his works, and their meaning exactly corresponded to the realities of the time, where they were taken from. Most of the old words appear in his work “The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich”. This, for example, is “you know”, “oh you are a goy”, Ali”. Also, Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky writes works in which there are many ancient words. These are "Dmitry the Pretender", "Voevoda", "Kozma Zakharyich Minin-Sukhoruk".

The role of words from past eras in modern literature

Archaisms remained popular in the literature of the 20th century. Let us recall the famous work of Ilf and Petrov "The Twelve Chairs". Here, the old words and their meaning have a special, humorous connotation.

For example, in the description of Ostap Bender's visit to the village of Vasyuki, the phrase "The one-eyed man did not take his only eye off the grandmaster's shoes" is found. Archaisms with Church Slavonic overtones are also used in another episode: “Father Fyodor was hungry. He wanted to be rich."

when using historicisms and archaisms

Historicisms and archaisms can greatly embellish fiction, but their inept use causes laughter. Old words, the discussion of which often becomes very lively, as a rule, should not be used in everyday speech. If you start asking a passer-by: “Why is your neck open in winter?”, then he will not understand you (meaning the neck).

In newspaper speech, too, there is an inappropriate use of historicisms and archaisms. For example: "The principal of the school welcomed young teachers who came to practice." The word "greeted" is synonymous with the word "greeted". Sometimes schoolchildren insert archaisms into their writings and thereby make sentences not very clear and even ridiculous. For example: "Olya ran in tears and told Tatyana Ivanovna about her offense." Therefore, if you want to use old words, their meaning, interpretation, meaning should be absolutely clear to you.

Obsolete words in fantasy and science fiction

Everyone knows that such genres as fantasy and science fiction have gained immense popularity in our time. It turns out that ancient words are widely used in fantasy works, and their meaning is not always clear to the modern reader.

Such concepts as "banner" and "finger", the reader can understand. But sometimes there are more complex words, such as "komon" and "nasad". I must say that publishing houses do not always approve of the excessive use of archaisms. But there are works in which the authors successfully find application for historicism and archaism. These are works from the "Slavic fantasy" series. For example, the novels of Maria Stepanova "Valkyrie", Tatyana Korostyshevskaya "Mother of the Four Winds", Maria Semenova "Wolfhound", Denis Novozhilov "Far Far Away. Throne War.

Do you know that the words "fire" and "four" are relatives, that the word "old" used to be synonymous with the word "strong". We remembered the 20 most ancient words in the history of mankind, whose origin can tell a lot.

1 I

The personal pronoun "I" occupies the first line in the Swadesh list, this lexeme is the base for most languages ​​of the world. This word is a shifter, that is, its meaning depends on the speaker himself. Linguists believe that the word "I" is at least 40 thousand years old.

In Russian, the word "I" goes back to Praslav. azъ with prosthetic j.

By linguistic irony, despite the fact that it is customary to say that “I am the last letter in the alphabet”, in Cyrillic the first letter “az” also denoted the personal pronoun “I”.

2 Mother

The word "mother" is in all languages. In most of them, often even unrelated to each other, the sequences of sounds /ma/, /mama/ correspond to the word "mother". So, in Chinese “mother” is māma (妈妈/媽媽), in Czech máma, in French and Persian maman, in Dari language maadar. However, sometimes such a sequence of sounds can have other meanings. So, in the Georgian language “mother” is the father, in Latin “mamma” is the breast of a woman feeding with milk.

3 Man

In many languages, the same word means both a man and a person in general. Yes, in English language man, in French homme. The word "man" in Russian goes back to Praslav. *mǫžьščina - a derivative with the suffix -in- from the adjective *mǫžьskъjь, further from the noun *mǫžь. Borrowed into Russian, probably through Belarusian-Ukrainian intermediary, from Polish mężczyna.

The Russian “man” is related to the ancient Indo-European word mánuṣ (mánu-, mánuṣ-), which meant “man, husband”.

4 Ash

One of the most ancient words, common in all Indo-European languages, is the word "ash". This word is considered related to such words as "green" and "gold". Linguists also consider the Lithuanian word "žìlas" (gray-haired) and the Latvian "zils" (blue) to be related to the word "ash". The word "ash" is included in the list of 23 super stable lexemes that have not changed in 15 thousand years.

5 Fire

More than 15 thousand years and the word "fire". In Russian, it comes from Praslav. *ognis. English word“fire”, in turn, comes from the Proto-Germanic form *petwor-, from which, among other things, the Old English form of the word “feower” and the English “four” are derived. It goes back to the Proto-Indo-European form *qwetwor. That is, the word "fire" and the numeral "four" are distant relatives.

6 old

Do not take it as a tautology, but the word "old" is old. In Russian, it comes from the Proto-Slavic form *starъ. Interestingly, the word “old” is related to the Lithuanian stóras “thick, voluminous” and the Old Norse word stórr “big, strong, important, courageous”, as well as the Old Indo-European word sthirás, which translates as “strong, strong”. That is, the word "old", used today in the sense of "lived, existed for a long time" was originally also correlated with the meaning of strength, reliability and strength.

7 Hand

The Russian word "hand" comes from the Proto-Slavic form *rǫka. In all Slavic languages, this word is almost identical. Also, this word is related to Lithuanian rankà, Latvian roka, Old Prussian ransko. Etymologically, this word is also related by alternation with Lithuanian renkù, rinkaũ, riñkti meaning "to collect" and parankà "gathering, gathering".

8 No

The negative particle "no" also has an ancient origin, it is at least 20 thousand years old. This particle exists in all Indo-European languages, in Russian it is formed from Old Russian notu, the negative particle not in English is formed from Old English *nōht, nāht ‎(“nought, nothing”).

9 Other

The word "other" is historically related to the word "second", this applies to all Indo-European languages. In Russian, the word "other" comes from forms related to the Old Slavic droug and the ancient = Greek ἄλλος. In Czech, the word druhý is translated as "second", in Polish drugi is also "second". The English word "other" comes from the Old English "the second" (adj.), "one of the two, other.

10 One, two, three...

Numerals one, two, three and five also have an ancient origin. They are at least forty thousand years old and were used before the emergence of all the languages ​​of the Indo-European family. A recent study by linguists from the English city of Reading found that the numeral "one" (one) is somewhat younger than "two" and "three". The numeral "Four" (four) has undergone significant changes, so the version of this numeral currently used is much younger.

11 Lai

The Russian word "lai" comes from the Old Russian lati "to bark, scold", lai "quarrel, blasphemy". Akin to Lithuanian lóti, lóju "to bark", Latvian lãt, lāju "to bark, scold, slander", Old Indo-European rāуаti "barks", Ossetian ræin "to bark", Greek. λαίειν, Latin lātrāre "to bark", lāmentum "sobbing, wailing".

12 Gold

The word "gold" also has ancient roots. He is at least 20 thousand years old. The common Slavic zolto came from the Indo-European language with the meaning "yellow" (Proto-Indo-European form *ghlo-).
This word is also related to the Eastern Lithuanian žеl̃tas "golden", "golden yellow", the Gothic word gulþ, the Old Indo-European híraṇyam "gold".

In addition, linguists also do not exclude the relationship of the root *ghel- with the root *ghlei-.

13 Man

The Russian (and common Slavic) word "man", in contrast to its lexically simple equivalents in Romance and Germanic languages ​​​​(homo, l "homme, hombre, uomo, man, der Mensch, etc.), is complex, dibasic, split, which increases its word-building capacity, the ability to enter into new morphological connections.It comes from the Proto-Slavic *čelověkъ, from which, among other things, came: the Old Russian form of man čelověkъ, the Old Slavic chlovѣkъ (Old Greek ἄνθρωπος).

15 Apple

Linguists are unanimous that the word "apple" in the Slavic languages ​​is one of the most ancient. The exact time of its origin is unknown, but it existed already in the period of the common Indo-European language. According to researchers, this word was borrowed from the Celtic languages. The initial sound j (yot) arose on common Slavic soil. The word "apple" in the languages ​​of the Celtic group goes back to the protoform ablu. In modern Russian, "apple" in the original meaning of "ball" is not used, but denotes the fruit of an apple tree.

16 People

The Slavic word "people" originates from the common Slavic ljudje - "people". Etymologically, it is related to other languages ​​of the Indo-European group: Old German liut ("people") and Gothic liudan. In the Old Slavonic language, the word lyudin meant "free man". The same meaning can be traced in European languages. In it liute, in Burgundian leudis "free husband (man)", in Greek ἐλεύθερος "free (man)".

17 God

The word "God" goes back to the common Slavic - bogъ, related to the ancient Indian - bhaga-h. In the ancient Iranian language - baga, baga (fate, fate, happiness, god). These words go back to the Indo-European form - bhag- (giving wealth, god).

In modern Russian, the word "God" came from Old Russian, where god is a borrowing from Church Slavonic. Probably, the common Slavic bogъ is of ancient Arabic origin, where baha, baga - “fate, fate”, “lord, god”, or goes back to the ancient Indian bhaga-h - “well-being, happiness”, as well as “giving, bestowing”, bhagavant - “ blessed", "great, god".

18 Beast

The word "beast" is also found in all ancient languages. The literal meaning of the word is "wild animal". Although in Russia this word began to be used only from the 11th century, it is very ancient and came from the Indo-European. This word is found in many ancient languages, for example in Old Prussian (swirins - "wild animal"), in Latin - ferus (wild).

19 Don't care

The verb "spit" is super stable and has existed virtually unchanged for more than 15,000 years. In Russian, the word “spit” comes from the Proto-Slavic form *pjuti, akin to Lithuanian spiáuti, spiáuju, spióviau “spit”, Latvian spl̨aũt - the same, Greek πτύω “spit”, πτύαλον, πτύελον “saliva”. AT different languages the word is of onomatopoeic origin, with variants representing the sound of spitting.

20 Give

The word "give" comes from the Proto-Slavic form *dā́tī; *dājātī; *dāvā́tī and goes back to Proto-Indo-European *do-. This word is related to the Lithuanian dúoti, Greek. δίδωμι, Old Indo-European dádāti "gives", Avestan dadāiti "gives".

The most ancient in origin is the noun gift, formed from the verb “give” by means of the suffix -р- (like a feast), which is unproductive in modern Russian.

Introduction

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that used to be used very often are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more often. Such processes in the language are associated with a change in the life of the society that it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; if society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept stands for.

As mentioned above, changes in the lexical composition of the language occur constantly: some words become obsolete and leave the language, others appear - are borrowed or formed according to existing models. Those words that have gone out of active use are called obsolete; new words that have just appeared in the language are called neologisms.

Historiography. There are many books on this topic, here are just a few of them: "Modern Russian: Lexicology" by M.I. Fomina, Golub I.B. "Stylistics of the Russian language", electronic sources were also used to provide more complete information.

The purpose of the work is to study the use of both obsolete words and neologisms in various styles speech. The objectives of this work are to study obsolete vocabulary and new words that have different areas of use and what place they occupy in different styles of speech.

Based on the goals and objectives set, the structure of the work consists of an introduction (in which the goals, objectives, historiography and structure of the work are indicated), three chapters (which show the stylistic division, the reasons for the appearance and signs of obsolete words and neologisms, obsolete vocabulary and new words , the so-called neologisms, in various styles of speech), as well as a conclusion (which summarizes the work done).

obsolete words

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar)

From a stylistic point of view, all words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);

stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “not in their own style” violates the correctness, purity of speech; one must be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "hindrance" belongs to the colloquial style, while the word "exorcise" belongs to the book style.

Also, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),

limited vocabulary.

Common vocabulary includes words used (understood and used) in different linguistic areas by native speakers, regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are the majority of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs (blue, fire, grumble, good), numerals , pronouns, most function words.

The vocabulary of limited use includes words whose use is limited to some locality (Dialectisms (from the Greek diblektos "dialect, dialect") are elements of Russian dialects (dialects), phonetic, grammatical, word-formation, lexical features that occur in the stream of normalized Russian literary speech.), profession (Special vocabulary is associated with the professional activities of people. It includes terms and professionalisms.), Occupation or interests (Jargonisms are words used by people of certain interests, occupations, habits. For example, there are jargons of schoolchildren , students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc.).

Word obsolescence is a process, and different words may be at different stages. Those that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less frequently than before, are called obsolete (voucher).

Outdated vocabulary, in turn, is divided into historicisms and archaisms.

Historicisms are words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example: chain mail, corvée, horse-drawn carriage; modern Saturday, Sunday; socialist competition, the Politburo. These words have fallen out of use along with the objects and concepts they designate and have passed into passive vocabulary: we know them, but do not use them in our everyday speech. Historicisms are used in texts that deal with the past (fiction, historical research).

Historicisms are used in articles on historical themes to indicate realities, in articles on topical topics - to draw historical parallels, as well as in connection with the actualization of concepts and words in modern speech.

In addition to historicisms, other types of obsolete words are distinguished in our language. We use certain words less and less in speech, replacing them with others, and so they are gradually forgotten. For example, an actor was once called a lyceum, a comedian; they said not a journey, but a voyage, not fingers, but fingers, not a forehead, but a brow. Such obsolete words are called completely modern objects, concepts that are now commonly called differently. New names have replaced the old ones, and they are gradually being forgotten. Obsolete words that have modern synonyms that have replaced them in the language are called archaisms.

Archaisms are fundamentally different from historicisms. If historicisms are the names of obsolete objects, then archaisms are obsolete names of quite ordinary objects and concepts that we constantly encounter in life.

There are several types of archaisms:

1) the word can become completely obsolete and completely out of use: cheeks - "cheeks", neck - "neck", right hand - "right hand", shuytsa - "left hand", so that - "to", destruction - "death";

2) one of the meanings of the word may become obsolete, while the rest continue to be used in the modern language: stomach - "life", thief - "state criminal" (False Dmitry II was called "Tushinsky thief"); over the past 10 years, the word give has lost the meaning of "sell", and the word throw away - the meaning of "put on sale";

3) 1-2 sounds and / or place of stress can change in a word: number - number, library - library, mirror - mirror, string - lace;

4) an obsolete word may differ from modern ones by a prefix and / or a suffix (friendship - friendship, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman);

5) the word may change individual grammatical forms (cf.: the title of A. S. Pushkin's poem "Gypsies" - modern form gypsies) or the belonging of this word to a certain grammatical class (the words piano, hall were used as feminine nouns, and in modern Russian these are masculine words).

As can be seen from the examples, obsolete words differ from each other in terms of the degree of archaism: some are still found in speech, especially among poets, others are known only from the works of writers of the last century, and there are those that are completely forgotten.

The archaization of one of the meanings of a word is a very interesting phenomenon. The result of this process is the emergence of semantic, or semantic, archaisms, that is, words used in an unusual, outdated meaning for us. Knowledge of semantic archaisms helps to correctly understand the language of classical writers. And sometimes their word usage cannot but make us think seriously...

Archaisms should not be neglected either. There are cases when they return to the language, re-integrate into the composition of the active vocabulary. So it was, for example, with the words soldier, officer, ensign, minister, adviser, received in modern Russian new life. In the first years of the revolution, they managed to become archaic, but then they returned, having acquired a new meaning.

Archaisms, like historicisms, are necessary for word artists to create the color of antiquity when depicting antiquity.

Decembrist poets, contemporaries and friends of A.S. Pushkin, used Old Slavonic vocabulary to create a civil-patriotic pathos of speech. A great interest in obsolete words was a hallmark of their poetry. The Decembrists were able to single out the layer in the archaizing vocabulary that could be adapted to express freedom-loving ideas. High outdated vocabulary can be subjected to ironic rethinking and act as a means of humor and satire. The comical sound of obsolete words is noted even in the everyday story and satire of the 17th century, and later in epigrams, jokes, parodies, which were written by participants in the linguistic polemics of the early 19th century. (members of the "Arzamas" society), who opposed the archaization of the Russian literary language.

In modern humorous and satirical poetry, obsolete words are also often used as a means of creating an ironic coloring of speech.