General characteristics of Russian industry. The main trends in the development of modern production What characterizes modern industrial production
Thus, from Table 3 it can be seen that industrial production Russia is growing every year, gaining momentum.
In the process of statistical accounting and analysis, the sectoral structure of industry is usually determined by finding the share of sectors in the total volume of production, the number of employees, and the value of the fixed production assets of industry. Let's determine the share of each industry in the total volume of production (Fig. 3).
Fig.3. Share of industries in total production
From these percentages in Fig. 3, we see that the largest share in the total volume of production is occupied by mechanical engineering.
II. Prospects for the development of industrial production in Russia
The prospects for the development of industrial production in Russia should be considered in two directions: the prospects for the development of the extractive industry and the prospects for the development of manufacturing industries.
2.1. Prospects for the development of the extractive industry
As is known, the sustainability of the mineral resource base (RMB) largely depends on the balance of the ratio between the levels of production and the growth of mineral reserves. Since 1991, the extraction of the vast majority of types of minerals has been provided mainly by the previously created backlog of reserves due to the additional exploration of previously discovered deposits, as well as the transfer of reserves from preliminary estimated to explored ones.
Until the mid-1990s, the increase in oil and gas reserves in the continental part of the country exceeded their production. In the period from 1990 to 1997, there was a sharp drop in the volume of reproduction, caused by a decrease in the volume of geological exploration (GE). The main reason is that the state system of reproduction of SMEs that existed in the USSR was destroyed, and a full range of conditions for its replenishment was not created. The current state of the Russian SME of hydrocarbons according to various sources rated in the range from critical to "threatening national security". Over the past 10 years, replenishment of MSR reserves has amounted to 73% for oil, 47% for gas, 33% for copper, 57% for zinc, and 41% for lead.
Negative trends are most indicative in the analysis of SME oil. Over the past years, not a single significant deposit has been explored. In the last decade, proven oil reserves have been declining by an average of 1.3% annually, while in the world, minus production, they are systematically increasing by 1.2-1.6%.
There is a serious lag in development and a qualitative deterioration in the raw material base of the extractive industries of MSCs. This means the need to take emergency measures to strengthen prospecting and exploration work, since the development of standard oil reserves at the current level of production in the conditions of a three- to five-fold increase in world consumption of raw materials predicted for the first half of this century will end in 2010-2015. This is confirmed, in particular, by the fact that for large oil companies the time to ensure oil production with proven reserves is insignificant (from 15 to 35 years) .
Compared with the level of 1994, funding for exploration work at the expense of the federal budget has now been reduced by a factor of three. In addition, the share of budgetary funds (including regional) allocated for exploration by all sources of funding is constantly decreasing: in 2000 it amounted to 36.5%, in 2004-2005. - less than 12.0%. Large vertically integrated Russian companies are in no hurry to attract investment resources for exploration. Due to this, the reserves that are retired during operation are not compensated for by their increments for a long time, which inevitably leads to the depletion of SMEs. Nevertheless, there is no purposeful state policy in this area.
However, the problem of the extractive industry is not only in the depletion of reserves, but also in the deterioration of their quality characteristics, since the domestic practice of field development lags far behind foreign technical and technological levels. A significant part in the structure of oil, gas, coal reserves is hard-to-recover and low-quality reserves.
Far from ideal, the only incentive mechanism (deductions for the reproduction of SMEs) that needs to be restored was eliminated with the introduction of the mineral extraction tax in 2002. Currently, there are no tax incentives for companies engaged in exploration.
A significant problem is the fiscal nature of the tax system, the use since January 1, 2002 of a specific, linked to world oil prices and not taking into account the rent of the provision of the tax rate on the extraction of minerals (MET). The tax system built on such principles is of a fiscal nature. It is focused on gross production indicators, does not have regulatory functions aimed at the development of the extractive industry. It is necessary to develop a more efficient MET collection system that takes into account significant differences in the mining and geological conditions of deposits and allows creating equal conditions for subsoil users to develop deposits.
As for the lack of investment resources for field development and exploration, this problem is solved through the implementation of long-term non-commercial lending to the industry from the GVIKF.
In order to streamline the management system of the geological exploration process and organize its financing, the idea of creating a National Geological Exploration Company, necessary to intensify geological exploration, should be recognized as expedient.
The solution of the rest of the above problems is closely related to improving the quality of state control in the field of subsoil use.
In relation to the analysis of the problems of the extensive development of the extractive industry, one cannot but touch upon the problem of the collection and utilization of associated petroleum gas (APG) in Russia. This by-product of oil production, due to the unpreparedness of the infrastructure for its collection, transportation and processing, is simply burned by mining companies in flares. As a result, the annual losses of the Russian economy from APG flaring amount to at least 25 billion cubic meters. m (annual production of natural gas in China). APG flaring also causes significant environmental damage.
The scale of this problem has already brought it to the attention of the President of the Russian Federation, who recently set the task of minimizing APG flaring for the Government of the Russian Federation.
To solve this problem, the following management actions and decisions are required: establishing the obligation of a subsoil user to equip oil fields with metering equipment that controls APG consumption, developing technical regulations for APG flaring, introducing requirements for APG utilization into license agreements, introducing a direct ban on APG flaring in legislation, and providing a state loan for the construction of infrastructure for the processing and transportation of APG (with the help of the proposed creation of the GVIKF).
2.2. Prospects for the development of the manufacturing industry
The development of this segment of the economy determines the positioning of the country in the world market, contributes to diversification and sustainability economic development. Despite the growth in the manufacturing industries in 1999–2006, production volumes here are still significantly below the level of 1990. At the same time, the growth rates of the manufacturing industries, with the exception of ferrous metallurgy, lag noticeably behind the growth rates of the economy as a whole, and their share in the industrial production is declining (see Table 3).
According to World Bank experts, the level of labor productivity in the manufacturing industry in Russia lags behind not only the developed countries of Europe, but also the countries of Central and Eastern Europe that have made the transition to the market, and many developing countries, such as Brazil or South Africa. In terms of labor productivity, Russian manufacturing enterprises are close to Chinese and Indian firms, but noticeably lose to them in terms of labor costs, which reduces their competitiveness both in the global and Russian markets.
The situation is aggravated by the fact that in the medium term the objective conditions for the functioning of Russian enterprises will probably be more stringent. The Russian economy is becoming increasingly open both to the flow of goods and to foreign firms operating in Russia. Extensive cheap sources of economic growth have already been exhausted.
The prices for resources for production purposes, primarily for fuel, energy, land, etc., will most likely grow at a faster pace. Maintaining a competitive position requires a significant increase in the efficiency of using these resources, which, in turn, implies re-equipment, changing the range of products, improving its quality characteristics. Otherwise, Russian enterprises are unlikely to be able to compete with firms in large developing countries such as China, whose industry is based on a more modern technical base. A radical modernization of production is impossible without significant investments. But with the level of profitability that is typical for most Russian industrial enterprises, they are not an attractive target for external investors, and their own funds are not enough to solve large-scale modernization tasks.
The way out could be the creation of new, highly efficient enterprises in the manufacturing industries, not burdened by the legacy of an outdated technical base and a difficult financial situation. So far, new enterprises are mainly oriented towards the domestic market of Russia and/or import substitution, appearing in those segments that are relatively protected from external competition and are not capable of radically changing Russia's raw material positioning in the global economy. In addition, the creation of new enterprises is hampered by a number of factors, in particular, an insufficiently favorable investment climate, high administrative barriers, tighter access to infrastructure (engineering and transport communications, energy supply) and cheap sources of fuel (primarily gas), and an aggravated shortage of qualified personnel.
An analysis of the situation at the micro level shows that low averages hide gigantic differences in the level and dynamics of efficiency in individual enterprises.
Thus, the Russian manufacturing industry is highly diversified, with the least competitive segment caught in a vicious circle of inefficiency. In essence, the task of improving competitiveness is to break this vicious circle: increase the number and increase the sustainability of the competitive advantages of leaders and reduce the share of uncompetitive enterprises.
The results of the survey allow us to speak about the presence in the industry, and in various sectors, of a group of leading enterprises and a group of outsiders. According to various estimates (using various criteria), 20-25% of enterprises can be classified as competitive. Of these, about half not only have a higher level of labor productivity, but at the same time expand output, increase productivity at a rate exceeding the industry average. It is these enterprises that have the greatest growth potential today, being the engine of economic development.
At the same time, 35-40% of the enterprises in the sample constitute a group of outsiders that demonstrate low levels and dynamics of production efficiency and are obviously losing their competitiveness. In the future, these enterprises should either be seriously restructured or forced out of the market by more efficient companies.
The analysis showed that the probability of being in the group of competitive enterprises increases with the growth of the size of the company, when the enterprise is located in a large city with the status of a federal or regional capital. Thus, among enterprises with more than 1000 employees, the share of companies with high competitiveness is more than twice as high as the corresponding figure in the group of 100-250 employees. Thus, the concentration of production at large enterprises in industrial agglomerations, as before, largely determines the position of the company.
At the same time, not all is well even in the group of competitive leaders. Thus, half of the enterprises with high competitiveness have not been engaged in technological innovations in the last three years, and 9% - neither technological nor organizational. The physical wear and tear of equipment in the group of leaders has also reached an alarming degree: only 1/4 of them can consider the fleet of machines and equipment acceptable, and the equipment of half of them is completely worn out. Therefore, we can conclude that the group of competitive leaders is unstable. If today's trends continue, it is likely that in 3-5 years the share of competitive enterprises in the manufacturing industry will be halved - to 10-12%.
Conclusion
Industry - a set of enterprises (factories, factories, mines, mines, power plants) engaged in the production of tools for both other sectors of the national economy and for industry itself, as well as the extraction of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy production, logging and further processing products obtained in industry or produced in agriculture, the production of consumer goods. Industry is the most important branch of the national economy, which has a decisive influence on the level of development of the productive forces of society.
Industry consists of two large groups of industries - mining and manufacturing. The mining industry includes enterprises for the extraction of mining and chemical raw materials, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and non-metallic raw materials for metallurgy, non-metallic ores, oil, gas, coal, peat, shale, salt, non-metallic building materials, light natural aggregates and limestone, as well as hydroelectric power plants, water pipelines, forest exploitation enterprises, fishing and seafood production.
The manufacturing industry includes engineering enterprises, enterprises for the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rolled products, chemical and petrochemical products, machinery and equipment, woodworking products and the pulp and paper industry, cement and other building materials, light and food industry products, as well as enterprises for the repair of industrial products (steam locomotive repair, locomotive repair) and thermal power plants.
Achieving the strategic goals of Russia's development in the medium term is possible only if the growth economy is restored. At the same time, not only quantitative, but also qualitative characteristics of economic dynamics are extremely important.
A positive future for Russia can only be based on the rapid development of processing industries. It is their dynamics that determines, on the one hand, the level of investment activity and technological renewal of production, and, on the other hand, the dynamics and structure of consumption of the population. Consumer standards of the population, in turn, determine the formation and reproduction of labor motivations, and, consequently, the possible contribution of social factors to increasing production efficiency.
The development of the domestic manufacturing industry and construction can provide a radical increase in the quality of life of Russians, create opportunities for a positive change in living conditions through a large-scale supply of affordable housing, effective further motorization and advanced infrastructure development.
The primary sector of the Russian economy, the mining industry and especially export-oriented industries are the most important material resource for economic growth and maintaining the level and dynamics of export earnings. The latter is especially important during the recovery of the technological potential of the manufacturing sector of industry, construction and transport. The fulfillment by the primary sector of the economy of the tasks of providing material support for economic growth in Russia and maintaining positive values of net exports in the medium term also requires the development of complex processing of raw materials within the extractive industry and an increase in the share of final products in exports.
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The features of modern production are: specialization, interchangeability, the level of technology, the predominant production of services and the development of small businesses, the limited or rarity of resources.
1. Specialization. It is based on the technological and professional division of labor and is connected with the fact that on the way to the final product created by man to meet his needs from the forces and substances of nature, production is divided into a large number of intermediate stages that form independent organizations (enterprises). Specialization rests on the technological isolation of production and differences in the abilities of people and increases productivity and labor efficiency. It leads to the fact that for the consumption of a relatively small amount of final goods and services necessary for a person, a large number of intermediate types of goods are produced. As a result of specialization, no one produces even the smallest part of what he consumes, and there is a need for exchange, which leads to complete interdependence commodity producers. At the same time, the specialization of production is not limited to the territories of individual countries, it extends to all world economy- and there is an international exchange of goods and services. The degree of the international division of labor today is such that we are talking about economic globalization, in which many types of production in individual countries become part of a single world economy. The rapid development of transport and communication systems expands the geographic boundaries of markets and leads to the creation single world market.
Very large investments are spent on the development and creation of a new product and technology for its production. For example, for the development of a new series of electronic machines, the American concern JBM once spent about $ 5 billion. Such gigantic costs, if they are regular, can completely exhaust national resources. Therefore, international specialization and cooperation are a necessary condition for the normal functioning of the economy of each country. Russia, like other countries, is not able to develop and produce the entire range of products it needs, numbering about 200 million items in the world. It produces about 25 million items, but needs 40–50 million items; i.e. 15–25 million types of goods are the unmet needs of the country's population, which must be met through imports. To ensure the balance of trade, a country can import goods from other countries only for the amount of foreign exchange that it receives from the export of its goods. Therefore, a prerequisite for the well-being of the country's population, economic security and political independence of the country is the production by enterprises of such goods and services that have competitive advantage in the global market.
2. Interchangeability. The property of all types of consumed goods and services is their non-identity. But at the same time, a relatively rare number of them is not interchangeable. It is enough to pay attention to grocery stores, when visiting which we are faced with such a large variety of products offered to us that can satisfy our need for food. Because of this, we often experience certain difficulties in choosing them. All types of production resources are also interchangeable with each other. For example, on fertile plots of land, with less labor, you can get the same harvest as on bad plots. In this case, one can speak not about the direct replacement of land and labor, but about the savings in labor that occurs when the best plots of land are used. Modern manipulators and robots allow you to create automated (unmanned) production.
3. Level of technology. Each production has its own technology, and each technology is characterized by its inherent set of resources and their specific combination, determined by the appropriate way of converting production resources into a new good. For example, the most common type of modern energy, which is electricity, can be produced at nuclear, thermal and hydroelectric power plants, using the power of wind, sea tides, chemical reactions, solar energy, etc. As a result of scientific and technological progress, the amount of knowledge increases about ways and means of transformation of production resources. New processes and related machines and mechanisms arise, the professionalism of workers grows, new ideas and new knowledge necessary for their implementation appear, there is a continuous improvement in production technology, with the help of which it is possible to produce more goods from a constant amount of resources or to produce the same amount of goods. use fewer resources.
A feature of modern scientific and technological progress is the continuous acceleration of its growth, and information communications are so perfect that many novelties, in whatever country they arise, quickly become known to the whole world. As a result, the technology used quickly becomes obsolete, becomes uncompetitive, requires continuous updating, improvement and development, and the production itself becomes innovative. Today, many foreign companies have created new industrial technologies, consisting of robots, CNC machine tools, computer programs for design, design, engineering analysis and control over machinery, which are coordinated by one computer. Such technologies are called "computer-integrated manufacturing technologies". They usually consist of three parts:
· computer design in which computers are used in the creation of drawings, design and engineering analysis and design of new products;
· computer production, which uses computer-controlled machines used in the processing of materials, the production of parts and the assembly of products. Computer production allows you to quickly switch production lines from one type of product to any other, changing only the instructions for the machine or the program for the computer, which allows you to quickly meet the needs of consumers in design or in the range of products;
· integrated information network, which, using a computerized system, links all aspects of an organization's activities, including accounting, procurement of raw materials, materials, warehouse operation, design, production, marketing, etc. It gives managers the ability to make decisions and manage the production process as a whole.
The use of computer-integrated manufacturing technologies ensures the highest possible level of product quality and cost reduction, allows mass production at a low price, production of products adapted to the specific needs of customers, when each product is unique and created at the request of the buyer. “Today you can buy a computer built to fit your needs, jeans tailored to your shape, glasses specially made to fit your face, a CD of music of your choice, and pills with such a set of vitamins and minerals. which one is right for you."
4. Predominant service production and small business development. As early as the beginning of the second half of the 20th century, the leading countries of economic development lost the features of industrial development and began to acquire signs of a post-industrial society, in whose economy, as a result of the scientific and technological revolution and a significant increase in household incomes, the priority shifted from the production of goods to the predominant production of services. Production is increasingly focused not on satisfying mass needs, but on the specialized needs of different groups of consumers, i.e., on markets of small capacity. These countries include the United States, where the service sector accounts for more than 80% of gross domestic product (GDP) (2002), the European Union - about 70% of GDP (2004), Japan - about 68% of GDP (2001). The share of services in Russia's GDP in 2007 was about 61%.
The development of the service sector has led to a sharp increase in entrepreneurial structures and the formation of a large number of small businesses. Small enterprises in a market economy occupy a special place. In many countries with developed market economies, the performance of small businesses determines the rate of economic growth, the structure and quality of GDP, accounting for up to 70–80% of its total volume. The “Japanese miracle” and the role of small business in the Japanese economy are well known. Only in the manufacturing industry of the country there are about 6.5 million small and medium-sized enterprises, which is 99% of their total number. They employ about 40 million people (81% of all employees). In the US, small businesses produce more than 60% of all services, half of all products, and almost half of all ideas and innovations. Small enterprises, of which there are more than 7 million, employ 100 million people.
Russian legislation defines two criteria for categorization of "small enterprises": the number of employees and the share in the founder's capital. In terms of the maximum number, small enterprises include:
in industry, construction and transport - 100 people;
· in agriculture, in innovative activity and scientific and technical sphere - 60 people;
· in retail trade and consumer services - 30 people;
· in other industries and in the implementation of other activities - 50 people.
The status of "small" is not granted to an enterprise in the founding capital of which the share of a legal entity or individuals exceeds 25%. In other words, "small enterprises" are enterprises that are not connected in their functioning by the decisions of other legal entities or individuals in the choice of strategy and tactics of action.
The main advantages of small business include:
small business in most of its forms is available to many citizens due to small initial capital investments and the lack of need for large working capital;
· increased mobility, flexibility, the ability to quickly respond to changes in market demand;
· the problem of creation of new workplaces is solved;
Small enterprises have lower overhead costs and less management apparatus than large ones;
· With the development of a network of small enterprises, local raw materials are widely used, and in many cases production waste.
Small business plays an insignificant role in the Russian economy. Firstly, the share of small enterprises in the total number of enterprises at the beginning of 2008 was 25%, while in the EU countries it was about 70-90%. Secondly, the share of people employed in small businesses is only 13.6% of all employed in the economy, and small businesses produce only 12% of GDP. Thirdly, in the countries of Western Europe there are on average 40 small enterprises per thousand inhabitants, in the USA - about 75, and in Russia - only eight. Fourth, almost a third of small businesses are concentrated in the two largest cities: Moscow (19%) and St. Petersburg (about 11%). For Russia, the development of small business is of particular importance. The formation of the middle class and, to a large extent, the state of "health" of society, its psychological climate, depend on the level of its development.
5. Limited or scarce resources. The material needs of people are literally limitless and unsatisfactory. This happens for two reasons. Firstly, the number of the population is constantly growing and, secondly, with scientific and technological progress, the number of goods and services produced increases, new, hitherto unknown benefits appear, which are the subject of satisfying new human needs. From the moment a new good appears to the organization of its mass production, a long period of time is needed. As a result, people in many situations are faced with the problem of income or resources falling short of growing needs. The unlimited need and limited (rarity) of resources forces organizations to maximize (rational) use of available resources, which leads to the emergence of such an important concept as economic efficiency. Production operates efficiently if it is at the frontier of its production possibilities and, depending on the type of activity, creates a good at the lowest cost or receives the greatest profit. This means that workers are willing and able to work, they should not be idle or forced to be out of work, suitable and available natural resources and equipment are fully utilized, the production technology corresponds to the achieved level of scientific and technological progress, the good produced is competitive and causes demand among consumers. The subject of studying the content of the economic efficiency of the production of various goods is the science of economics. Economics is the science of the efficient use of rare multi-purpose production resources to maximize the satisfaction of the unlimited needs of people. It consists of two fundamental sections - microeconomics and macroeconomics.
economic indicator of the process of processing raw materials into a product suitable for human use, using specially designed equipment
Information on industrial production, types and forms of organization of industrial production, world industrial production and the industrial production index, the relationship of the industrial production index with other indicators
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Industrial production is, the definition
A complex technological process, which consists of production and technological units engaged in the production of parts, components, semi-finished products using a specially designed industrial equipment, from raw materials, as well as the subsequent assembly and sale of finished products that meet the needs of the market, from the manufactured elements.
Industrial production is processing of raw materials into a form suitable for human consumption.
Industrial production is the basis of the Russian economy
Industrial production is the most complex mechanism, which includes both the actual production and technological divisions that produce semi-finished products, parts, components, assembly units from raw materials and materials, and then assemble finished products from these elements, as well as a large number of auxiliary divisions, which are often combined under a single name production infrastructure.
Industrial production is production, during which raw materials, basic materials or semi-finished products are converted into a finished product using industrial equipment.
Industrial production as a market indicator
Industrial production is a process in which people, being in certain production relations, using tools and objects of labor, create the products of industrial and personal consumption necessary for society. Industrial production is divided into main, auxiliary, service. Basic industrial production - a set of production processes in the course of which raw materials, basic materials or semi-finished products are converted into a finished product. Auxiliary industrial production - a set of production processes associated with the manufacture of tools, fixtures, dies, etc. Servicing industrial production - the implementation of intra-factory transportation and storage operations of all kinds.
Industrial production is the stage of the innovation process following the stage of mastering new equipment (technologies). In production, knowledge materializes, and research finds its logical conclusion.
Industrial production in the Russian economy
Industrial production is production (manufacturing) of goods, using specially designed industrial equipment, in serial and mass quantities, with the aim of their further sale and profit.
Industrial production is the Fed's statistical report G.17, containing an indicator of changes in the total volume of industrial production by enterprises in the country. Includes an indicator of the degree of utilization of production capacities.
Estimates and prospects of industrial production in Russia
Industrial production is a complex process of converting raw materials, semi-finished materials and other objects of labor into finished products that meet the needs of the market.
Industrial production is activities related to the release of products, which includes all stages of the technological process, as well as the sale of products own production.
Postscript on industrial production
Production and stages of its development
Production is a human-controlled process of creating products (products, energy, services). Production involves the use of factors of production (labor, technical means, materials, energy, various services). It requires compliance with technical conditions and rules, as well as taking into account social and ethical norms. The theory of production as a branch of the science of the national economy and economics of the enterprise studies the functional relationship between the costs of production factors and output.
The process of production of tangible and intangible benefits is the basis for the development of an economic entity, in particular, and the nation as a whole.
Industrial production in Russia
Production is the starting point for the creation of tangible and intangible goods. But the initial one is only within the framework of the obvious truth that in order to live, a person must eat, drink, have a dwelling, etc. In a market economy, however, production will be carried out only when the sphere of exchange gives the producer an appropriate price signal. Goods created in the process of production complete their movement in consumption. But it is important to emphasize that consumption is the direct goal of production only in non-market economic systems. Both in the primitive community, and in the slave-owning society, and under feudalism, consumption is the goal of production.
However, in the system of a market economy, the main goal is not consumption, but profit from production activities.
There are three stages of production development: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial.
Industrial production in China
Pre-industrial stage of development of production
The pre-industrial stage of production is characterized by the following:
The predominant role in the economy is occupied by agriculture;
Most of the population is engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding;
Manual labor predominates in all areas of activity;
The main form of labor organization is subsistence farming;
The underdevelopment of the social division of labor.
The industrial revolution of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. led to the transition of production to the industrial stage.
Industrial stage of industrial production
The industrial stage of production is characterized by the following features:
The predominant role in the economy is played by industrial production with the massive use of technological machines and equipment;
The bulk of the able-bodied population is employed in the industrial branches of production;
Activation of the process of social division of labor;
Accelerating the rate of urbanization of the population.
The scientific and technological revolution that took place in the middle of the 20th century led to the transition of production to the post-industrial stage.
Post-industrial stage of production development
The post-industrial stage has the following features:
The predominant role in the economy is occupied by the service sector, which employs most of the population;
Science occupies a central place in the system of productive forces;
On the basis of high technologies, the production of goods that did not previously exist in nature is mastered;
Mass information and automation of all branches of the national economy.
Types of industrial production
Type of production - a classification category of production, distinguished on the basis of the breadth of the range, regularity, stability of the volume of output of products, the type of equipment used, qualifications of personnel, labor intensity of operations and the duration of the production cycle. Usually distinguish between single, serial and mass production.
Single production
Single production is characterized by a wide range of products and a small volume of production of identical products. Patterns either do not repeat or repeat irregularly. Jobs do not have deep specialization. Single production is characterized by the presence of a significant work in progress, the lack of assignment of operations to workplaces, the use of unique equipment, frequent reconfiguration of equipment, high qualification of workers, a significant share of manual operations, overall high labor intensity of products and a long cycle of their manufacture, high cost of products. A diverse range of products makes unit production more mobile and adaptable to fluctuating demand for finished products.
Single production is typical for the machine tool industry, shipbuilding, the production of large hydraulic turbines, rolling mills and other unique equipment.
Mass production
Serial production is characterized by the production of a limited range of products. Batches (series) of products are repeated at regular intervals. Depending on the size of the series, small-batch, medium-batch and large-batch production is distinguished.
In serial production, it is possible to specialize individual workplaces for performing similar technological operations. The level of production costs is reduced due to the specialization of jobs, the widespread use of labor of semi-skilled workers, the efficient use of equipment and production space, and the reduction in wage costs compared to unit production.
Series products are standard products, such as machines of a steady type, usually produced in larger quantities (metal-cutting machines, pumps, compressors, equipment for the chemical and food industries).
Mass production
Mass production is characterized by the production of certain types of products in large quantities at highly specialized workplaces over an extended period. Mechanization and automation of mass production can significantly reduce the share of manual labor. Mass production is characterized by an unchanged range of manufactured products, specialization of jobs in the performance of one permanently fixed operation, the use of special equipment, low labor intensity and duration of the production process, high automation and mechanization.
The cost of mass-produced products is minimal compared to single-unit and mass-produced products. This type of production is economically feasible with a sufficiently large volume of output. A necessary condition for mass production is the presence of a stable and significant demand for products. In the context of the economic crisis, mass production becomes the most vulnerable.
Forms of organization of industrial production
A distinctive feature of industrial production enterprises is not only a high technical level of development, but also constantly developing forms of organization that have a great impact on both the economy and location.
The main forms of industrial production organization are: specialization, cooperation, concentration and combination.
Specialization of industrial production
Specialization is a form of organization of production, in which there is a separation and separation of industries, enterprises, organizations focused on the production of a certain type of product or part of it, as well as on the performance of a separate technological operation. Allocate subject, detailed, technological (stage) specialization.
Subject specialization is specialization in the production of a certain type finished product(tractor plant).
Detailed specialization is specialization in the production of part of the product of individual parts (motor, bearing plant).
Technological specialization is specialization in the performance of a specific production operation (foundry).
The level of specialization is the higher, the narrower the range j of manufactured products, the less the enterprise performs technological operations. Increasing the specialization of production requires the use of high-performance equipment; introduction of new methods of technology, mechanization and automation of production processes; raising the level of staff qualifications and increasing labor productivity - this reduces the cost while improving quality, which leads to increased sales, increased profits and profitability.
Cooperation of industrial production
Successful development of specialization is impossible without cooperation. Cooperation is understood as close production ties between individual industries or enterprises jointly involved in the manufacture of a specific finished product.
Cooperation contributes to a better use of the production capabilities of each enterprise, increases labor productivity, and reduces the cost of production. Industrial cooperation requires the standardization of technological processes and certain types of products supplied. Standardization ensures the production of products with strictly defined properties, quality and size, ensures the interchangeability of parts and assemblies. Enterprises are required to produce products in strict accordance with approved standards (GOST).
Standardization is inextricably linked with the unification of products. Unification means the use in the production of machines and other products of the same type of parts, assemblies, homogeneous grades of materials.
Reducing the number of used types and sizes of parts, assemblies, mechanisms simplifies and reduces the cost of designing machines, their production and operation.
Concentration of industrial production
An important form of industrial production organization is the concentration of production.
Concentration is the concentration of means of production, labor, and, consequently, output in large enterprises.
The market economy is characterized by a combination of enterprises of various sizes. The presence of large, medium and small enterprises in the economy ensures the greatest production efficiency. With the use of modern technology, the right specialization and cooperation, they are cost-effective.
Combined industrial production
Combination is the highest form of industrial organization. When organizing production, enterprises producing various types of products are combined into one enterprise - a combine. There are three types of combination:
Based on successive stages of processing raw materials (textile, metallurgical plants);
Based on the use of production waste (production of cement from blast-furnace slag);
Based on the complex processing of raw materials or fuel (extraction of several metals, oil, fuel oil, gasoline, diesel fuel from the same ores).
Combination as a form of organization of production is widespread in the chemical, woodworking, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy industries. The combination reduces capital costs for the construction of enterprises, reduces transportation costs for the transportation of raw materials, fuel, speeds up production processes, reduces labor costs, ensures growth in labor productivity and reduces the cost of production.
Industrial production index
The industrial production index, abbreviated as IPP, is an indicator of the dynamics of the volume of industrial production, its rise or fall, is determined as the ratio of the current volume of production in monetary terms to the volume of industrial production in the previous or other base year. It is determined by selecting representative goods, characterized as the most important types of industrial products.
The index shows fluctuations in production in the extractive and manufacturing industries, and in the utilities sector (not including the construction sector).
The index of industrial production has a direct impact on the indicators of economic growth. The growth of this indicator contributes to the growth of the national currency and has a fairly large impact on the market.
The growth of this index means the strengthening of the economy as a whole.
At the same time, the Capacity Utilization indicator is calculated, which means the ratio of the total output to the potential value. This indicator is of no small importance for the foreign exchange market, due to its close connection with the dynamics of the business cycle, with the help of which, in difficult moments of waiting for changes in the policy of central banks, it becomes another benchmark for the market, suggesting possible future actions of the Central Bank.
This data is based on workbook entries, which correspond to the number of hours worked by workers in the industrial sector. The total US industrial production for each month is expressed as a percentage of gross production compared to the previous year;
Mining;
Manufacturing industries;
Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water.
That is, this index characterizes the change in GDP due to fundamental sectors of the economy.
Companies representing fundamental industries form the basis of the capitalization of the entire stock market of the Russian Federation. Such companies include: Gazprom, Lukoil, RusHydro, the largest machine-building manufacturers, and so on. The growth of the IPP indicates an increase in production, which, in turn, increases profits, which can be expressed in the rising value of the shares of companies associated with industrial production.
With a decrease in the IPI, the reverse process will not necessarily occur, since inflation increases the revenue and profits of producers even if real production does not grow. Consider a hypothetical situation that could arise in May 2010.
These indicators can be interpreted as follows:
For the first 4 months of 2010, 25% of the goods and services accepted for calculation were produced more than for the first 4 months of 2009;
At the same time, in April 2010 it was produced 15% more than in April 2009;
However, in April 2010 it was produced 23% less than in March of the same year.
If we compare this information with changes in GDP over the same periods, we can conclude how the volume of production in fundamental industries has changed relative to all other sectors of production and services. That is, if the IPP grows faster than GDP, then this indicates a faster pace of development of fundamental industries. In a situation where the IPP lags behind GDP growth, the reverse trend is observed.
This is a purely hypothetical situation, but nevertheless, it allows you to understand what the industrial production index (IPI) is.
Brokers and forex traders consider IPCU an important tool in assessing future performance, assets in the market. The report may at times cause an increase in sales or purchases as an influence in certain industries and the Forex market.
Industrial production makes up approximately 40% of the US economy. There is a fairly high correlation between the level of production and the value of GDP. The advantage of this indicator is that it measures output rather than monetary terms.
Changes in GDP may be more concentrated in this sector of the economy.
Thus, IPCU provides information that suggests the possible course of upcoming inflation.
The index is expressed by the Federal Reserve System (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System) as a percentage of the state of 1992.
As a rule, its change in relation to the previous month is published in the media.
The report is released at 09:15 am Washington DC or 17:15 Moscow time, usually on the 15th month following the reporting period by the Federal Reserve Board's research department for the previous month.
Relationship with other economic indicators
The indicator depends on the level of capacity utilization (Capacity Utilization), industrial orders in the previous month (Durable Goods Orders, Factory Orders), for a longer period, business activity indices are used to predict the level of production, in particular, the index of optimism of industrial sector managers (NAPM Index) . Growth in production usually leads to an increase in labor costs and, accordingly, a fall in unemployment (Unemployment rate), as well as an increase in the index of industrial production has a positive effect on company income, GDP, and stock indices. The indicator has a significant impact on the market. The growth of this indicator leads to an increase in the exchange rate of the national currency.
Features of the indicator behavior
Fluctuations in the index of industrial production are markedly correlated with fluctuations in the business cycle with strong gains during the recovery period. During the downturn, industrial production declines 0.8% m/m on average, with a normal range of -1.3 to 0.3%. During the recovery phase, production tends to increase by 0.9% per month and then the growth rate is set at 0.4% during the expansion phase. Since employment hours directly account for about one-third of the industrial production index and indirectly reflect monthly business conditions, using the employment report data can help predict the industrial production index.
Industrial production of the world in 2006-2013
An update on world industrial production for the past two months, February and March. Canada has been added to the general list.
Kazakhstan set its own record (151% as of March 2005). History shows that the surge is seasonal, but looking ahead, I will say that in April (the data is already available) the level was preserved. So you can be happy for your partners in the CU. The main contribution to the growth was made by the gas sector and concrete production.
Because of China, we again had to change the maximum value along the axes. The new record is 238% from March 2005.
Returned data for Italy, last time they were not available. However, they did not show anything new. After a surge in January, the country continued to move down as part of the trend.
Germany and Brazil switched again. Both countries show a decline in industrial production (this is clearly visible on the trend chart), but the rate of decline varies from month to month.
Ukraine rolled back to 2009 levels. More than 5% drop per year.
But in March, Russia managed to turn the winter decline into growth.
Top 20 countries by industrial production
List of countries in the world with data on industrial production
China - industrial production volume
USA - industrial production
Japan - industrial output
India - industrial production
Russia - industrial production volume
Germany - industrial output
Mexico - industrial output
South Korea - industrial output
Brazil - industrial output
Indonesia - industrial output
Italy - industrial production volume
United Kingdom - industrial output
Iran - industrial output
France - industrial output
Turkey - industrial production volume
Thailand - industrial production
Egypt - industrial output
Nigeria - industrial production
Pakistan - industrial output
Philippines - industrial production
Countries with high rates of production growth
List of countries in the world with industrial production growth data
Azerbaijan - growth of industrial production
Angola - growth of industrial production
Sudan - growth of industrial production
Slovakia - industrial production growth
Cambodia - industrial production growth
Bulgaria - industrial production growth
China - growth of industrial production
Georgia - growth of industrial production
Rwanda - industrial production growth
Uzbekistan - growth of industrial production
Laos - growth of industrial production
Lesotho - industrial production growth
Chile - Industrial production growth
Ethiopia - industrial production growth
Romania - industrial production growth
Vietnam - industrial production growth
Panama - industrial production growth
Turkmenistan - growth of industrial production
Equatorial Guinea - growth in industrial production
Mozambique - industrial production growth
Industrial production and environment
The 20th century brought a lot of benefits to mankind associated with the rapid development of scientific and technological progress, and at the same time put life on Earth on the brink of an ecological catastrophe. Population growth, intensification of production and emissions that pollute the Earth, lead to fundamental changes in nature and are reflected in the very existence of man. Some of these changes are extremely strong and so widespread that global environmental problems arise. There are serious problems of pollution (atmosphere, water, soil), acid rain, radiation damage to the territory, as well as the loss of certain plant species and living organisms, the impoverishment of bioresources, deforestation and desertification of territories.
Problems arise as a result of such an interaction between nature and man, in which the anthropogenic load on the territory (it is determined through the technogenic load and population density) exceeds the ecological capabilities of this territory, due mainly to its natural resource potential and the overall stability of natural landscapes (complexes, geosystems) to anthropogenic influences.
General trends in the development of production
The main sources of atmospheric air pollution in our country are machines and installations using sulfur-containing coals, oil, and gas.
Automobile transport, thermal power plants, enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil and gas processing, chemical and timber industries significantly pollute the atmosphere. A large number of harmful substances enter the atmosphere with the exhaust gases of cars, and their share in air pollution is constantly growing.
With the growth of industrial production, its industrialization, environmental protection measures based on MPC standards and their derivatives become insufficient to reduce already formed pollution. Therefore, it is natural to turn to the search for aggregated characteristics, which, reflecting the real state of the environment, would help to choose the environmentally and economically optimal option, and in polluted (disturbed) conditions, determine the order of restoration and recreational activities.
With the transition to the path of intensive development of the economy, an important role is assigned to the system of economic indicators, endowed with the most important functions of economic activity: planning, accounting, evaluation, control and stimulation. Like any systemic formation, which is not an arbitrary collection, but interconnected elements in a certain integrity, economic indicators are designed to express final result taking into account all phases of the reproductive process.
One of the important reasons for the increase in the nature intensity of the economy was the depreciation of equipment exceeding all permissible standards. In the basic industries and transport, wear and tear of equipment, including cleaning equipment, reaches 70-80%. In the context of the continued operation of such equipment, the likelihood of environmental disasters increases sharply.
Typical in this regard was the accident of an oil pipeline in the Arctic region of Komi near Usinsk. As a result, according to various estimates, up to 100,000 tons of oil spilled onto the fragile ecosystems of the North. This environmental disaster became one of the largest in the world in the 90s, and it was caused by the extreme deterioration of the pipeline. The accident received worldwide publicity, although according to some Russian experts, it is one of many - they just managed to hide others. For example, in the same region of Komi in 1992, according to the interdepartmental commission on environmental safety, there were 890 accidents.
The economic damage of ecological catastrophes is colossal. The funds saved as a result of preventing accidents could over the course of several years reconstruct the fuel and energy complex and significantly reduce the energy intensity of the entire economy.
The damage caused to nature in the production and consumption of products is the result of irrational nature management. There was an objective need to establish relationships between the results of economic activity and indicators of the environmental friendliness of manufactured products, the technology of their production. This, in accordance with the law, requires additional costs from labor collectives, which must be taken into account when planning. At the enterprise, it is advisable to distinguish between environmental protection costs associated with the production of products and with bringing the product to a certain level of environmental quality, or replacing it with another, more environmentally friendly one.
There is a relationship between product quality and environmental quality: the higher the quality of the product (taking into account the environmental assessment of the use of waste and the results of environmental activities in the production process), the higher the quality of the environment.
How can the needs of society for the proper quality of the environment be met? Overcoming negative impacts with the help of a reasonable system of norms and standards, with the linkage of the calculation methods of MPE, MPD and environmental protection measures; reasonable (comprehensive, economical) use of natural resources that meets the environmental characteristics of a particular territory; environmental orientation of economic activity, planning and justification of management decisions, expressed in progressive directions of interaction between nature and society, environmental certification of jobs, technology of products.
Attempts are being made on the basis of a single methodological approach, the calculation of private and generalizing indicators to express the relationship of natural and cost characteristics in making an economically feasible and environmentally conditioned (acceptable) decision. The priority of natural parameters and indicators meets the needs of the resource supply of social production. Cost indicators should reflect the effectiveness of efforts to reduce (or increase) the technogenic load on nature. With their help, the calculation of environmental damage is carried out and the effectiveness of measures to stabilize the nature management regime is evaluated.
It must be said that in addition to this, measures such as:
Ensuring the organization of the production of new, more advanced equipment and apparatus for cleaning industrial emissions into the atmosphere from harmful gases, dust, soot and other substances;
Carrying out relevant scientific research and development work to create more advanced equipment and equipment for the protection of atmospheric air from pollution by industrial emissions;
Installation and commissioning of gas-cleaning and dust-collecting equipment and apparatus at enterprises and organizations;
Implementation of state control over the operation of gas-cleaning and dust-collecting installations at industrial enterprises.
Natural-industrial systems, depending on the accepted qualitative and quantitative parameters of technological processes, differ from each other in structure, functioning and nature of interaction with the natural environment. In fact, even natural-industrial systems that are identical in terms of qualitative and quantitative parameters of technological processes differ from each other in the uniqueness of environmental conditions, which leads to various interactions between production and its natural environment. Therefore, the subject of research in engineering ecology is the interaction of technological and natural processes in natural-industrial systems.
Energy and environmental protection
The development of modern production, and, above all, industry, is based largely on the use of fossil raw materials. Among the individual types of fossil resources, one of the first places in terms of national economic importance should be placed on sources of fuel and electricity.
A feature of energy production is the direct impact on the natural environment in the process of extracting fuel and burning it, and the ongoing changes in natural components are very clear.
The time when nature seemed inexhaustible has passed. Terrible symptoms of destructive human activity manifested themselves with particular force a couple of decades ago, causing an energy crisis in some countries. It became clear that energy resources are limited. This also applies to all other minerals.
The situation is easily projected on providing the country with electricity. The question arises: how to compensate for retired capacities - to repair and reconstruct old or build new power plants? The conducted studies have shown that simple replacement of equipment and extension of the service life of power units is not the cheapest way. Experts came to the conclusion that the most profitable is the modernization and reconstruction of existing power plants and boiler houses through the introduction of modern gas turbine and combined cycle plants with higher efficiency.
According to experts, given the current rate of GDP growth, the situation in the energy sector will sharply worsen in the near future. At the same time, already now about half of the energy capacities require replacement. A significant part of thermal power plants in terms of their technical characteristics does not meet the current needs of energy consumption.
Saving fuel and energy resources
As technological progress increases, primary sources of electricity obtained from hydro- and geothermal power plants acquire an increasing share. The production of electricity from nuclear power plants is also growing. The potential capacities of all these sources are large, but so far only a small part of them is economically viable.
One of characteristic features modern stage of scientific and technological progress is the growing demand for all types of energy. An important fuel and energy resource is natural gas. The cost of its extraction and transportation is lower than for solid fuels. Being an excellent fuel (its calorie content is 10% higher than fuel oil, 1.5 times higher than coal and 2.5 times higher than artificial gas), it is also distinguished by high heat transfer in different installations. The gas is used in furnaces requiring precise temperature control; it produces little waste and smoke polluting the air. Wide application natural gas in metallurgy, in the production of cement and in other industries has made it possible to raise the work of industrial enterprises to a higher technical level and increase the volume of products obtained per unit area of technological installations, as well as improve the ecology of the region.
Saving fuel and energy resources is currently becoming one of the most important areas for transferring the economy to the path of intensive development and rational environmental management. However, there are significant opportunities for saving mineral fuel and energy resources when using energy resources. Thus, at the stage of enrichment and transformation of energy resources, up to 3% of energy is lost. Currently, almost all electricity in the country is produced by thermal power plants. Therefore, the question of the use of non-traditional energy sources is increasingly being put on the agenda.
At TPPs, only 30-40% of thermal energy is usefully used in the generation of electricity, the rest is dissipated in environment with flue gases, heated water. Of no small importance in saving mineral fuel and energy resources is the reduction in the specific fuel consumption for electricity generation.
Thus, the main directions of saving energy resources are: improving technological processes, improving equipment, reducing direct losses of fuel and energy resources, structural changes in production technology, structural changes in products, improving the quality of fuel and energy, organizational and technical measures. Carrying out these activities is caused not only by the need to save energy resources, but also by the importance of taking into account environmental issues when solving energy problems.
Of great importance is the replacement of fossil fuels with other sources (solar energy, wave energy, tide energy, earth energy, wind energy). These sources of energy resources are environmentally friendly. By replacing fossil fuels with them, we reduce the harmful impact on nature and save organic energy resources. Experts in the field of energy consider the development of energy- and resource-saving technologies and the implementation of an energy-saving program to be the most promising.
The expansion of the use of local fuel resources, such as oil, associated gas, brown coal, peat, wood, and animal waste, will partially reduce the supply of fuel from abroad. But calculations show that the planned measures for energy saving, maximum use of local fuel resources and non-traditional energy sources will be able to increase the provision of own fuel only up to 38-40%.
The main reason for the significant deterioration of the environmental situation is the lack of a sustainable mechanism that takes into account the level of excess of MAC and MAC. This affects the economy of sources that pollute the environment, as well as the basic (starting) environmental and economic standards that determine the types of economic, moral punishment or encouragement.
One of the fundamental assumptions in the formation of environmental and economic standards is the definition of "proportions" between the possible directions for the use of natural resources within the boundaries of a particular territory.
The calculation of standards should be carried out taking into account the following provisions:
For each natural complex, there is a certain value of the maximum allowable anthropogenic load, which does not violate natural processes, and its effect can be compensated by self-recovery processes;
When the anthropogenic load is higher than the permissible value, but not exceeding the limit level specific for each natural system, disturbances in the natural state of this system caused by the action of the anthropogenic factor can be eliminated as a result of eliminating the load and carrying out environmental protection measures;
If the anthropogenic load on the natural environment has exceeded the limit level, then processes of irreversible degradation develop.
At the current level of development of production forces, almost all territorial elements and components of the environment are involved in the turnover, so they are negatively affected by pollutants and physical factors. Therefore, it is advisable to revise the existing technological processes that damage the environment.
Sources and links
Sources of texts, pictures and videos
en.wikipedia.org - a resource with articles on many topics, the free encyclopedia Wikipedia
dic.academic.ru - dictionaries and encyclopedias on Academician
vertiforex.ru - VertiFX Limited website
forum.garant.ru - information and legal portal Garant
mirslovarei.com - online portal World of Dictionaries
fxeuroclub.ru - site about trading in the forex market
freshforex.ru - Internet portal for traders
red-sovet.su - information portal Red Councils
yourlib.net - electronic online library
rudiplom.ru - portal with educational materials
bibliofond.ru - electronic library with educational materials
isachenko-na.ru - a site about the economic and legal activities of the enterprise
kodeksy.com.ua - information site about law
kanaev55.livejournal.com - a blog about the economy in facts and figures
yestravel.ru - Internet resource about the countries of the world
Links to internet services
youtube.com - YouTube, the largest video hosting in the world
google.ru - the largest search engine in the world
video.google.com - search for videos on the Internet through Google
translate.google.ru - translator from the Google search engine
maps.google.ru - maps from Google to search for places described in the material
yandex.ru - the largest search engine in Russia
wordstat.yandex.ru - a service from Yandex that allows you to analyze search queries
video.yandex.ru - search for videos on the Internet through Yandex
images.yandex.ru - search for images through the Yandex service
maps.yandex.ru - maps from Yandex to search for places described in the material
otvet.mail.ru - service of questions and answers
ru.tradingeconomics.com - service of economic indicators of the countries of the world
ereport.ru - economic indicators of the countries of the world
Links to application programs
windows.microsoft.com - the site of Microsoft Corporation, which created the Windows operating system
office.microsoft.com - website of the corporation that created Microsoft Office
chrome.google.ru - a commonly used browser for working with sites
hyperionics.com - site of the creators of the HyperSnap screen capture program
getpaint.net - free software for working with images
Industry- the leading branch of material production.
Despite a slight decrease in recent decades due to the rapid development of the service sector, the share of industry in the structure of GDP (up to 35%) and in the total (500 million people), industry still continues to have a very serious impact not only on, but on all other aspects of social development. Over the past century, industrial production has grown more than 50 times, and what? This increase occurs in the second half of the 20th century.
Most of the research and development work (R&D) is focused on this particular branch of the world economy. The dominant importance of industrial goods is noted in the structure of the world.
Modern industry is distinguished by the complexity of the composition of industries, industries and relationships between them.
Each of the branches and industries is characterized by a different degree of capital intensity, labor intensity, material intensity, energy intensity, water intensity, science intensity, etc. There are various approaches to the classification of industries.
Depending on the time of occurrence, industries are divided into three groups:
- Old (coal, iron ore, metallurgical, shipbuilding, textile industry, etc.). These industries emerged during the industrial revolutions. Today, their development is slow, but they still continue to have a significant impact on the geography of world industry.
- New ones (automotive industry, aluminum smelting, plastics, chemical fibers, etc.), which determined scientific and technological progress in the first half of the 20th century. Previously, they were concentrated mainly in developed countries and grew very rapidly. Today, their growth rates have slowed down somewhat, but remain quite high due to their spread to developing countries.
- The latest (microelectronics, Computer Engineering, robotics, nuclear manufacturing, aerospace manufacturing, organic synthesis chemistry, microbiological industry and other science-intensive industries.), which emerged in the era of scientific and technological revolution. Currently, they are growing at the fastest and most sustainable rates and their impact on the geography of industry is increasing. They are typical mainly for economically developed and newly industrialized countries.
Sometimes industries are distinguished according to a different principle: heavy and light industry. The heavy industry includes the mining industry, part, energy, metallurgy, etc. The "" includes all types of light and.
Very often, industries are divided into two large groups: mining and processing industries.
Extractive industry- a set of industries engaged in the extraction of various raw materials and fuels from, waters and forests. The significance of these industries lies in the fact that they, along with creating a raw material base for the manufacturing industries.
The extractive industry has a different share in the industry of different countries. Thus, in developed countries, the extractive industries account for about 8% and the processing industries for 92%. In developing countries, the weight of extractive industries is much higher. IN modern world a huge amount of raw materials, mainly mineral, is mined. It is known that about 98% of the extracted raw materials go to waste in the form of waste rock, soil, non-standard wood, etc. Only 2% of the raw materials reach the level of processing.
The main sectors of the extractive industry:
- mining industry;
- hunting;
- fishing;
- wood harvesting.
The mining industry is understood as a group of industries associated with mining and primary processing (enrichment).
Although the share of the mining industry in the GMP is gradually decreasing, it continues to have a significant impact on the MGR and .
Naturally, mining enterprises gravitate towards areas where natural resources are extracted. The general current trend for her is to move north and into the shelf zone, i.e. to new mining areas.
Until the 1970s, developing countries were the main suppliers of raw materials for developed countries. Since the mid-70s, there has been a raw material crisis, which significantly affected the entire concept of the mineral resource economy. Developed countries began to focus on saving raw materials and greater use of their own resources. Some countries even began to reserve their raw materials () in cases where the cost of raw materials purchased in other countries turned out to be lower than their own.
Under these conditions, the role of developed countries has significantly increased:, Australia and. Today, developed countries meet their needs by 1/3 with supplies from developing countries, the rest is provided by their own production and supplies from Canada, Australia and South Africa.
As a result of the MGRT, three groups of major mining powers have formed in the world economy:
Eight great mining powers: developed - USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa; countries with economies in transition - China; developing - , India.
The second group is formed by countries with a highly developed mining industry, for which many mining industries have become international specialization industries. , Kazakhstan, Mexico, etc.
The third echelon is formed by countries distinguished by any one branch of international specialization. First of all, these are the countries of the Persian Gulf - the oil industry; Chile, Peru - mining of copper ore; – mining of tin ores; , – bauxites; - phosphorites, etc.
Many developed countries, despite the fact that they have large reserves of mineral resources, are not their suppliers to the world market. This is due to the fact that they themselves are large consumers of this raw material and are trying to supply the market not with raw materials, but with final products.
The geography of the main areas was considered when studying the topic "World Natural Resources".
Manufacturing industry- a set of industries involved in the processing and processing of industrial and agricultural raw materials. It includes: production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals; chemical and petrochemical products; machines and equipment; woodworking and pulp and paper industry products; cement and building materials; light and food industry products, etc.
Designation
Industrial production and environmental quality
General trends in the development of production
Saving fuel and energy resources is the most important direction of rational environmental management
Greening the economy
Features of the indicator behavior
Main indicators of environmental hazard of the regional industrial complex
Full title indicator - industrial production index (index of industrial production index). The abbreviations commonly used are index of prom production, Indust Product, Industr Produ, Ind Prod, Indu, and so on. Indicator measures output in industry, extractive industries and consumers industries, reflecting the growth of the index of industrial production and utilities in the country, excluding the construction sector. It is one of the main indicators reflecting the state of the national economy. 39% index based on the physical data of production volume, the rest index based on hours worked by employees and data in terms of energy consumption. Measured indexically in % - full value and monthly index change. You should know that the industrial production Index is production without construction, or otherwise "clean production". The total, taking into account the products of the construction sector, is given in the same report and is called the Manufacturing Production Index. Its lesser mention is due to the high volatility of construction data, which reduces the correctness of estimates of the situation in production based on this index. The report is released at 09:15 am Washington time or 17:15 Moscow time, usually on the 15th month following the reporting period by the Federal Reserve Board's research department for the previous month.
Relationship with other indicators. depends on the level of capacity utilization (Capacity Utilization), industrial orders in the previous month (durable goods Orders, Factory Orders), for a longer period to predict the level of production, business activity indices are used, in particular, managers of the industrial sector (NAPM Index). Growth in production usually leads to an increase in labor costs and, accordingly, a fall in unemployment (Unemployment rate), and the growth of industrial production has a positive effect on company incomes, GDP, and stock indices. The indicator has a significant impact on . The growth of this indicator leads to an increase in the exchange rate of the national currency.
Social production for the entire historical period its development has gone through 3 stages, which correspond to 3 types of division of labor.
The industry is a set of homogeneous enterprises characterized by a common unity: consumer or eq purpose of manufactured products, processed raw materials, used material and technical base, professional staff.
At all stages of its development, man was closely connected with the outside world. But since the emergence of a highly industrial society, the dangerous human intervention in nature has increased dramatically, the scope of this interference has expanded, it has become more diverse and now threatens to become a global danger to humanity. The cost of non-renewable raw materials is rising, more and more arable land is being withdrawn from the economy as cities and factories are built on it. Man has to intervene more and more in the economy of the biosphere - that part of our planet in which life exists. The Earth's biosphere is currently undergoing increasing anthropogenic impact. At the same time, several of the most significant processes can be distinguished, none of which improves the ecological situation on the planet. The most large-scale and significant is the chemical pollution of the environment by substances of a chemical nature unusual for it. Among them are gaseous and aerosol pollutants of industrial and household origin. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is also progressing. Further development of this process will reinforce the undesirable trend towards an increase in the average annual temperature on the planet. Causes concern among environmentalists and the ongoing pollution of the oceans with black gold and oil products, which has already reached almost half of its total surface. Oil pollution of this size can cause significant disruption of gas and water exchange between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. There is no doubt about the importance of chemical contamination of the soil with pesticides and its increased acidity, leading to the collapse of the ecosystem. In general, all the factors considered, to which a polluting effect can be attributed, have a noticeable effect on processes occurring in the biosphere.
Industrial production and environmental quality
The 20th century brought many benefits to humanity associated with the rapid development of scientific and technological progress, and at the same time put life on Earth on the brink of an ecological catastrophe. Population growth, intensification of production and emissions that pollute the Earth, lead to fundamental changes in nature and are reflected in the very existence of man. Some of these changes are extremely strong and so widespread that global environmental problems arise. There are serious problems of pollution (atmosphere, water, soil), acid rain, radiation damage to the territory, as well as the loss of certain plant species and living organisms, the impoverishment of bioresources, deforestation and desertification of territories.
Problems arise as a result of such an interaction between nature and man, in which the anthropogenic load on the territory (it is determined through the technogenic load and population density) exceeds the ecological capabilities of this territory, due mainly to its natural resource potential and the overall stability of natural landscapes (complexes, geosystems) to anthropogenic influences.
General trends in the development of production
The main sources of air pollution in our territory countries- machines and installations using sulfur-containing coals, gas.
Significantly pollute the atmosphere road transport, thermal power plants, enterprises ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil and gas processing, chemical and timber industry. A large number of harmful substances enter the atmosphere with the exhaust gases of cars, and their share in air pollution is constantly growing.
With the growth of the index of industrial production, its industrialization, environmental protection measures based on the MPC standards and their derivatives become insufficient to reduce the already formed pollution. Therefore, it is natural to turn to the search for enlarged characteristics, which, reflecting the real state of the environment, would help the choice of an ecologically and economically optimal option, and in polluted (disturbed) conditions - determined the order of restoration and recreational activities.
With the transition to the path of intensive development of the economy, an important role is assigned to the system of economic indicators, endowed with the most important functions of economic activity: planning, accounting, evaluation, control and stimulation. Like any systemic formation, which is not an arbitrary collection, but interconnected elements in a certain integrity, economic indicators are designed to express the final result, taking into account all phases of the reproduction process.
One of the important reasons for the increase in the nature intensity of the economy was the depreciation of equipment exceeding all permissible standards. In basic industries industry, transport wear equipment, including treatment, reaches 70-80%. In the context of the continued operation of such equipment, environmental disasters are sharply increasing.
Typical in this regard was the accident of an oil pipeline in the Arctic region of the Komi gas pipeline. As a result, according to various estimates, up to 100 thousand tons of black gold. This environmental disaster became one of the largest in the world in the 90s, and it was caused by the extreme deterioration of the pipeline. The accident received worldwide publicity, although according to some Russian experts, it is one of many - they just managed to hide others. For example, in the same region of Komi in 1992, according to the interdepartmental commission on environmental safety, there were 890 accidents.
The economic damage of ecological catastrophes is colossal. The funds saved as a result of preventing accidents could over the course of several years reconstruct the fuel and energy complex and significantly reduce the energy intensity of the entire economy.
The damage caused to nature in the production and consumption of products is the result of irrational nature management. There was an objective need to establish relationships between the results of economic activity and indicators of the environmental friendliness of manufactured products, the technology of their production. This, in accordance with the law, requires additional costs from labor collectives, which must be taken into account when planning. On the enterprise it is expedient to distinguish costs on environmental protection associated with the production of products and with bringing the product to a certain level of environmental quality, or replacing it with another, more environmentally friendly one.
There is a relationship between product quality and environmental quality: the higher the quality of the product (taking into account the environmental assessment of the use of waste and the results of environmental activities in the production process), the higher the quality of the environment.
How can the needs of society for the proper quality of the environment be met? Overcoming negative impacts with the help of a reasonable system of norms and standards, with the linkage of the calculation methods of MPE, MPD and environmental protection measures; reasonable (comprehensive, economical) use of natural resources that meets the environmental characteristics of a particular territory; environmental orientation of economic activity, planning and justification of management decisions, expressed in progressive directions of interaction between nature and society, environmental certification of jobs, technology of products.
The rationale for environmental friendliness seems to be an integral part of the management system that influences the choice of priorities in providing the national economy with priority resources and services within the planned consumption volumes.
The difference between production interests and industry tasks determines the peculiarities of the views of specialists on the problem of greening production, applied and created equipment and technology.
Attempts are being made on the basis of a single methodological approach, the calculation of private and generalizing indicators to express the relationship of natural and cost characteristics in making an economically feasible and environmentally conditioned (acceptable) decision. The priority of natural parameters and indicators meets the needs of the resource supply of social production. Cost indicators should reflect the effectiveness of efforts to reduce (or increase) the technogenic load on nature. With their help, the calculation of environmental damage is carried out and the effectiveness of measures to stabilize the nature management regime is evaluated.
It must be said that in addition to this, measures such as:
Providing the company with the production of new, more advanced equipment and apparatus for cleaning industrial emissions into the atmosphere from harmful gases, dust, soot and other substances;
Carrying out relevant scientific research and development work to create more advanced equipment and equipment for the protection of atmospheric air from pollution by industrial emissions;
Installation and commissioning of gas-cleaning and dust-collecting equipment and apparatus at enterprises and organizations;
Implementation of state control over work gas-cleaning and dust-collecting installations at industrial enterprises.
Natural-industrial systems, depending on the accepted qualitative and quantitative parameters of technological processes, differ from each other in structure, functioning and nature of interaction with the natural environment. In fact, even the same in terms of qualitative and quantitative parameters technological processes natural-industrial systems differ from each other in the uniqueness of environmental conditions, which leads to various interactions of production with its natural environment. Therefore, the subject of research in engineering ecology is the interaction of technological and natural processes in natural-industrial systems.
The development of modern production, and, above all, industry, is based largely on the use of fossil raw materials. Among the individual types of fossil resources, one of the first places in terms of national economic importance should be placed on sources of fuel and electricity.
A feature of energy production is the direct impact on the natural environment in the process of extracting fuel and burning it, and the ongoing changes in natural components are very clear.
The time when nature seemed inexhaustible has passed. Terrible symptoms of destructive human activity manifested themselves with particular force a couple of decades ago, causing some countries energy . It became clear that energy resources are limited. This also applies to all other minerals.
The situation is easily projected on providing the country with electricity. The question arises: how to compensate for retired capacities - to repair and reconstruct old or build new power plants? The conducted studies have shown that simple replacement of equipment and extension of the service life of power units is not the cheapest way. Experts came to the conclusion that the most profitable is the reconstruction of existing power plants and boiler houses through the introduction of modern gas turbine and combined cycle plants with higher efficiency.
According to experts, given the current rate of increase GDP, the situation in the energy sector will sharply worsen in the near future. At the same time, already now about half of the energy capacities require replacement. A significant part of thermal power plants in terms of their technical characteristics does not meet the current needs of energy consumption.
Saving fuel and energy resources is the most important direction of rational environmental management
As technological progress increases, primary sources of electricity obtained from hydro- and geothermal power plants acquire an increasing share. Growing and getting electricity from nuclear power plants. The potential capacities of all these sources are large, but so far only a small part of them is economically viable.
One of the characteristic features of the modern stage scientific and technological progress is increasing on all types of energy. An important fuel and energy resource is. expense for its extraction and transportation is lower than for solid fuels. Being an excellent fuel (its calorie content is 10% higher than fuel oil, 1.5 times higher than coal and 2.5 times higher than artificial gas), it is also distinguished by high heat transfer in various installations. The gas is used in furnaces requiring precise temperature control; it produces little waste and smoke polluting the air. Wide application natural gas in metallurgy, in the production of cement and in other industries made it possible to raise to a higher technical level work industrial enterprises and increase the volume of products obtained per unit area of technological installations, as well as improve the ecology of the region.
Saving fuel and energy resources is currently becoming one of the most important areas for transferring the economy to the path of intensive development and rational environmental management. However, there are significant opportunities for saving mineral fuel and energy resources when using energy resources. Thus, at the stage of enrichment and transformation of energy resources, up to 3% of energy is lost. At present, almost all electricity in the country is produced by thermal power plants. Therefore, the question of the use of non-traditional energy sources is increasingly being put on the agenda.
At TPPs, only 30-40% of thermal energy is usefully used in the generation of electricity, the rest is dissipated in the environment with flue gases heated by water. Of no small importance in saving mineral fuel and energy resources is the reduction in the specific fuel consumption for electricity production.
Thus, the main directions for saving energy resources are: technological processes, improving equipment, reducing direct losses of fuel and energy resources, structural changes in production technology, structural changes in manufactured products, improving the quality of fuel and energy, organizational and technical measures. Carrying out these activities is caused not only by the need to save energy resources, but also by the importance of taking into account environmental issues when solving energy problems.
Of great importance is the replacement of fossil fuels with other sources (solar energy, wave energy, tide energy, earth energy, wind energy). These sources of energy resources are environmentally friendly. By replacing fossil fuels with them, we reduce the harmful impact on nature and save organic energy resources. Experts in the field of energy consider the development of energy- and resource-saving technologies and the implementation of an energy-saving program to be the most promising.
The expansion of the use of local fuel resources, such as oil, associated gas, brown coal, peat, wood, and animal waste, will partially reduce the supply of fuel from abroad. But calculations show that the planned measures for energy saving, maximum use of local fuel resources and non-traditional energy sources will be able to increase the provision of own fuel only up to 38-40%.
The main reason for the significant deterioration of the environmental situation is the lack of a sustainable mechanism that takes into account the level of excess of MAC and MAC. This affects the economy of sources that pollute the environment, as well as the basic (starting) environmental and economic standards that determine the types of economic, moral punishment or encouragement.
One of the fundamental assumptions in the formation of environmental and economic standards is the definition of "proportions" between possible areas of use natural resources within a specific territory. The calculation of standards should be carried out taking into account the following provisions:
For each natural complex, there is a certain value of the maximum allowable anthropogenic load, which does not violate natural processes, and its effect can be compensated by self-recovery processes;
When the anthropogenic load is higher than the permissible value, but not exceeding the limit level specific for each natural system, disturbances in the natural state of this system caused by the action of the anthropogenic factor can be eliminated as a result of eliminating the load and carrying out environmental protection measures;
If the anthropogenic load on the natural environment has exceeded the limit level, then processes of irreversible degradation develop.
At the current level of development of production forces, almost all territorial elements and components of the environment are involved in the turnover, so they are negatively affected by pollutants and physical factors. Therefore, it is advisable to revise the existing technological processes that damage the environment.
Greening the economy
Greening the economy is not a completely new problem. The practical implementation of the principles of environmental friendliness is closely connected with the knowledge of natural processes and the achieved technical level of production. The novelty is manifested in the equivalence of the exchange between nature and man on the basis of optimal organizational and technical solutions for the creation, for example, artificial ecosystems, for the use of material and technical resources provided by nature. In the process of greening the economy, experts identify some features. For example, to minimize damage to the environment, only one type of product should be produced in a particular region. If society needs an expanded range of products, then it is advisable to develop waste-free technologies, efficient cleaning systems and techniques, as well as control and measuring equipment. This will enable the production of useful products from by-products and industry waste. The main goals we are striving for when greening the economy are reducing the technogenic load, maintaining natural potential through self-healing and the regime of natural processes in nature, reducing losses, the complexity of extracting useful components, and using waste as a secondary resource.
The development of an environmentally oriented business can significantly change the ecological situation in the country, improve environmental protection and use natural resources. Obviously, it is impossible to solve environmental problems, reach a sustainable type of development without a general improvement in the economic situation of the country, an effective macroeconomic policy. x resources. The more resources used, the better for the country. The desire to increase the extraction of natural resources and intensify their exploitation can only accelerate the processes of environmental degradation. Fundamentally different approaches are needed. The underdevelopment of the manufacturing and processing industries, infrastructure, and distribution spheres lead to enormous losses of natural resources and raw materials. Is it necessary to increase the pressure on nature, knowing that a significant part of natural resources will be used irrationally?
Obviously, the point is not in the volume of use of natural resources and the production of intermediate products, but in the economic structures that use them. While maintaining the existing inertial tendencies in nature management, technogenic approaches in nature management, technogenic approaches in the economy, the country will never have enough natural resources to support the current type of development, even with a significant increase in the exploitation of natural resources. In this regard, it is extremely important to create more favorable - in comparison with nature-exploiting activities - conditions for the development of business in resource-saving industries related to the development of manufacturing and processing industries, infrastructure, and distribution. And here an effective selective support of resource-saving activities is needed. Therefore, the most important direction of economic reforms, the transition to a sustainable type of development is an environmentally-oriented structural restructuring that allows for effective resource saving. We are talking about the global redistribution of labor, material, financial resources in the national economy in favor of resource-saving, technologically advanced industries and activities. Emerging market mechanisms should play a huge role in such a redistribution of resources.
A radical change in the investment politicians towards environmental priorities. In this direction of capital investments, two aspects can be distinguished.
First, there is currently no well-developed concept of long-term development of the country's economy. Hopes that the "invisible hand" market itself will create an effective structure of the economy, are untenable due to the reasons noted above. As a result, there is a rather chaotic distribution of capital investments, which reinforces the nature-intensive type of development.
Secondly, the effects of the transition to sustainable resource-saving development are underestimated. The annual loss of degraded land, forests, and water resources can be estimated at many millions of dollars. With adequate economic consideration of the environmental factor, the efficiency of resource saving turns out to be much higher than the increase in the environmental intensity of the economy, which has been proved by the economic development of developed countries in the past two decades.
It is possible to facilitate the environmental and economic transition to a market economy through environmentally balanced environmental reforms and the creation of an appropriate economic environment at the macro level, conducive to the development of environmentally oriented business. Here, two types of economic mechanisms and instruments can be distinguished depending on the degree of sectoral coverage. First, the mechanisms and instruments operating within the framework of the entire economy, its industries and complexes. And, secondly, there are more special mechanisms and tools focused primarily on the nature exploiting industries, the primary sector of the economy, as well as on the regulation of environmental activities in other industries.
Within the framework of the entire economy, one can single out mechanisms for privatization, reform of property rights, demonopolization, the creation of environmentally consistent systems of taxes, loans, subsidies, trade tariffs and duties, etc. All these mechanisms and reforms of inevitable duties to one degree or another affect the environmental situation.
In the last decade, there has been increasing recognition of the mutual influence of a healthy environment and sustainable economic development. At the same time, the world was undergoing major political, social and economic changes as many countries embarked on programs to radically restructure their economies. Thus, the study of the impact on the environment of general economic measures has become a problem of serious importance and requiring a speedy solution.
It should also be said that general economic reforms sometimes lead to unforeseen damage to the environment. The existence of obsolete politicians, imperfection market and institutional structures anywhere in the economy may interact in unintended ways with broader economic reforms and create incentives for overexploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation. Correction of such a situation usually does not require the abandonment of the original economic policy. Instead, certain additional measures are required to address imperfections in the market, organizational structures, or obsolete policies. Such measures are usually not only beneficial for the environment, but are also a critical component of the success of general economic reforms.
Although general economic measures are not aimed at purposefully influencing the state of nature and the environment, they can affect it, both for better and for worse. These actions include: changing exchange rates or interest rates, reducing the public deficit, freeing up markets, liberalizing trade, strengthening the role of the private sector, and strengthening the institutional framework. They are often accompanied by price reforms and other reforms in key sectors of the economy such as agriculture and energy. The study of links between general economic activities and the environment is currently based on an empirical analysis of country-specific materials (ie focused on case studies). When conducting research to identify such relationships, a set of analytical methods and approaches is used. The analysis shows the difficulty of developing a common methodology for identifying all the impacts of general economic policy reforms on the environment. However, it also shows that careful case study of significant environmental impacts can help find better ways to deal with them, and provides some practical recommendations for applying its results to work.
The protection of nature is the task of our century, a problem that has become a social one. To fundamentally improve the situation, purposeful and thoughtful actions will be needed. A responsible and efficient policy towards the environment will be possible only if we accumulate reliable data on the current state of the environment, substantiated knowledge about the interaction of important environmental factors, if we develop new methods to reduce and prevent harm caused to nature by man.
Now the most important thing is the creation by the state through effective, indirect and direct, economic instruments and regulators of a favorable climate for the development of an environmentally oriented business.
It is important to abandon and reconsider many of the stereotypes in decision-making processes. Modern traditional approaches to economic development are based on the amount of natural resources used. The more resources used, the better for the country. The desire to increase the extraction of natural resources and intensify their exploitation can only accelerate the processes of environmental degradation. Fundamentally different approaches are needed. The underdevelopment of the manufacturing and processing industries, infrastructure, and distribution spheres lead to enormous losses of natural resources and raw materials. Is it necessary to increase the pressure on nature, knowing that a significant part of natural resources will be used irrationally?
Industries are grouped into intersectoral complexes: agro-industrial, machine-building, fuel and energy
Industry occupies a leading role in the system of the national economic complex, since it technically equips the national economy, generates advanced industrial technologies for other industries, it produces more than half GDP and national benefit
Sectoral structure - the ratio of individual industries to each other, expressed in%. Use the indicator of the share of the industry in the total V production ( cost fixed assets, headcount...
Disproportions in the USSR eq industries:
1. between groups A (34 manufactured industrial products) and B (14) The ratio of A and B in eq developed countries: 1:2 or 1:3. In 1913, in the Russian Federation, A accounted for 13 and B-23 industrial products.
2. between money issue military and civilian products About 34 resources of the national eq in the 80s were involved in the military-industrial complex
Stages of development of the national eq:
1913 - the year of the highest level of development of the national economy 1920 - the year of the lowest level of development of the national economy (= under Peter1)
The development of Belarusian industry in the period 1991-2000
Industrially developed Belarus, due to the established structure of its production and dependence on the Russian Federation as the main source of raw materials and the main market for Belarusian products, suffered from the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics () almost more than all other union republics.
For 1992-1995 industrial production decreased by 40%, - by 60%, freight forwarding - by 75%, etc. Such a deep crisis led to the growth of official and especially hidden unemployment, constant state budget and balance of payments, high inflation rates (25-26% monthly for 1992-1994). The main reasons for the high rates of inflation were the increase in prices for , increase in wages and other income population without correlation with the level labor efficiency, covering the deficit of public finances at the expense of credit money emission, etc.
A particularly acute problem faced by the industry of Belarus is due to the insufficient amount of its own energy carriers, raw materials and materials. For Belarus, this policy led to the following negative consequences:
the dominant position in imports from the CIS countries was occupied by energy carriers and metals;
Exports of relatively expensive Belarusian products to the Russian market decreased due to the difference in prices for products of basic industries. As a result, many Belarusian machine-building plants have accumulated stocks of finished products equivalent to three to five months of production;
trade relations with the Russian Federation, in contrast to previous years, began to be reduced to a large deficit, in which Belarus was forced to yield over oil and gas pipelines, oil refineries, etc. As of December 1, 1995, the foreign trade debt of Belarusian enterprises mainly to Russian suppliers for goods, works and services amounted to 9.5 trillion. rub., and minus the debt of other countries to the Republic of Belarus -4.4 trillion rubles.
The constant dependence on the import of Russian energy carriers and raw materials has firmly tied Belarus in foreign trade to the CIS countries and the Russian Federation.
A significant impact on the development of the Belarusian industry had a rupture of economic ties and a change in the ratio of prices for raw material and products. The main export sectors (engineering and light industry) in the first two years after the collapse of the USSR quite successfully resisted the deterioration of the general supplier situation. However, when economic changes reached a critical point, both export industries "collapsed", showing in 1994-1995. the highest rate of decline in production.
Another group of industries using imported raw material and semi-finished products (fuel, ferrous, chemical and petrochemical industries), had a slightly different trend of reducing the volume of output. In 1992-1994 among all industries, these industries were in the lead in terms of the rate of decline in production. However, in 1995, when the prices of imported raw materials stabilized, and a hard exchange rate was set for the US dollar, the sale of currencies the state (selected from the enterprises themselves) created very favorable economic conditions for importing industries. And as a result - the stabilization of production in the black metallurgy and a significant increase in production in the fuel, chemical and petrochemical industries.
The radical changes in prices, the system of cooperation, and the terms of foreign trade that took place in 1992-1995 affected the structure of Belarusian production. Along with the shifts caused by the change in the ratio of prices for the products of different industries, processes were going on in the economy to transform the sectoral structure of employment, means of development and production. As can be seen from Table 1, along with the fuel industry, such science-intensive engineering industries as instrument and machine tool building turned out to be in the "disaster zone" growth in these industries was due not only to a reduction in the supply of equipment from other CIS republics, but also to market saturation former USSR imported computers, household goods, etc., to which Belarusian goods are significantly inferior in terms of quality. The deterioration of production conditions in these industries had a negative impact on the level of wages. If in 1990 the average wage, for example, in instrument making was higher than in industry as a whole, by 4%, then in 1993 it amounted to only 75.7% of the average industrial level. The result of this situation was the intensive departure of workers from high-tech industries of mechanical engineering to other areas. With a general decrease in the number of industrial production potential for 1992-1993. by 7.1%, the reduction in the number of people employed in instrument making was 17.4%, in the electrical industry - 16.5%, in machine tool building - 14.3%. It should also be noted that since the acquisition by the Republic of Belarus of the state sovereignty there was an uncontrolled reduction and structural transformation of the scientific and technological potential. If in 1990 the number of workers in science and scientific services exceeded 102 thousand people, which accounted for 2% of the total number of people employed in the national economy, then in 1995 these figures decreased to 45.7 thousand people and 1%, respectively.
During 1992-1995. the government of the Republic of Belarus quite consistently fought against the ongoing structural changes by subsidizing potential bankrupt enterprises. It was this policy of the protectorate of state-owned enterprises that set back the development of market relations in the republic for a good ten years. However, financial support for unprofitable enterprises without their radical reconstruction only delayed, but did not eliminate the danger of the collapse of a significant sector of the Belarusian industry. Attempts to maintain the former structure led to the "guzzling" of unprofitable enterprises by the collectives, both their own working capital and state subsidies and loans, which could be used to modernize at least a small number of export-oriented enterprises. The opportunistic nature of support for enterprises, the lack of a long-term development strategy and the rejection of unpopular but necessary measures to modernize the economy should sooner or later lead to the degradation of production. Already in 1996, at most enterprises of the republic, the production technology was clearly outdated. According to tentative estimates, only about 18% of the total fleet of machinery and equipment in the industry corresponded to the world level. Of these, only 4% were involved in technological processes with world standards. The rest was used in technological processes of a lower level, production capacity industry has been largely underutilized. One of the reasons for this was that in Belarus the process of privatization and denationalization of industrial enterprises was slower than in other countries with economies in transition. Thus, in 1995, the share of the non-state sector in the total number of industrial enterprises was 65%, in the total volume of industrial output - 40%, and in the total number of industrial production potential -36%.
One of the serious problems for the Belarusian economy was the complication of relations with international financial organizations. In recent years, small loans, mainly of a stabilization nature. However, these amounts are not enough to modernize the economy. Borrowers do not want to risk larger amounts of money. They take into account that since the mid-1990s Belarus has been chronically running a deficit and steadily increasing its debt to Western financial and credit institutions. In other words, borrowers do not consider our republic a reliable borrower capable of timely repayment of large debts. It is the credit and financial policy of our authorities"contributed" to the fact that the total inflow of foreign investment in our economy, for example, is 50 times less than in the economy of the Russian Federation (in % of the GDP of these countries).
Very high financial risks in Belarus, tax oppression, and low protection of non-state producers have led to the fact that Western investor began to simply ignore Belarus.
In addition, industrial enterprises cannot count on financial injections from the country's internal reserves. Income republican and local budget are falling, and the share of investment in budget expenditures is declining. Private banks do not risk investing a significant part of their accumulated funds in projects to modernize production. It should also be taken into account that a significant number of enterprises operate at a loss, many of them, due to non-payments and inflation, are deprived of working capital and depreciation funds, and are not able to independently finance the reconstruction of their capacities.
All these reasons brought the industry, the national economy of the republic as a whole to the brink of collapse. As never before, the question of developing a development strategy for the country arose. The ruling circles of developed countries, unlike ours, have long realized that it is extremely important for the development of the country as a whole and to promote its implementation in a centralized manner, relying on the capabilities of the state. Main idea economic strategy In the 1960s, many countries were to create a powerful advanced industry and thereby ensure a strong foreign economic position. A similar task is facing Belarus today.
In 1996, the Main Directions for the Social and Economic Development of the Republic of Belarus for 1996-2000 were adopted. Their implementation was determined in two stages. At the first stage (1996-1997), it was supposed to carry out macroeconomic stabilization and create conditions for the resumption of economic growth. To this end, it was planned to reduce inflation, strengthen payment and financial discipline, and ensure the sustainable development of industrial and agricultural production. In the second stage (1998-2000), economic growth was supposed to resume. The main tasks of the first stage: overcoming the systemic crisis in a short time; creation of a mechanism to stimulate entrepreneurship and business activity; carrying out small and medium privatization; reduction of dollarization of the economy, strengthening of the national currency; reducing budget costs and reducing the tax burden; improving the financial situation of enterprises, overcoming the crisis of non-payments, creating a bankruptcy mechanism, etc.
The main tasks of the second stage are: stabilization of GDP growth at least 5% per year; activation of the process of structural restructuring of the economy on the basis of science-intensive resource-saving technologies, reduction in the share of inefficient industries; creation of an effective mechanism for investing in the economy, primarily stimulating highly efficient investments; protection of domestic producers in the domestic and foreign markets on the basis of expedient patronage and stimulation of exports: deepening integration with the CIS countries; development of the infrastructure of the economy, etc. However, it should be noted that already at the first stage it was not possible to solve a number of tasks set, which did not allow to radically change the situation in the growth economy for the reasons already stated above.)
It is also of interest to analyze the structure of the industrial complex at the present stage, its problems and development prospects.
At the beginning of 1998, there were 2,170 industrial enterprises in Belarus that were on an independent balance sheet. Compared to 1990, their number has increased by 1.4 times, which is explained by the disaggregation of state enterprises and the development of entrepreneurship. The average number of employees of an industrial enterprise during this time decreased from 909 to 447 people.
The structure of the industrial complex is represented by mechanical engineering and metalworking, chemical and petrochemical industries, electric power, light and food industries. Basically, these industries are focused on the production of finished products. The building materials industry, forestry, woodworking and food industries, as a rule, use local resources. Machine building and metalworking enterprises, chemical and petrochemical industries, electric power, fuel and light industries, integrated into the economies of the countries of the former USSR, operate on imported material and raw materials and fuel and energy resources.
What are the main directions and priorities of economic development by sectors and intersectoral industrial complexes?
The most important structural component of the national economy of Belarus is the fuel and energy complex. It includes systems for the extraction, transport, storage, production and distribution of all types of energy carriers. The fuel and energy complex accounts for 32.4% of all capital investments in industry, one sixth of fixed production assets, and 15.3% of all industrial output.
The core of the fuel and energy complex is the electric power industry, which has 22 large power plants with a total capacity of 7.3 million kW. Own electricity generation priorities power plants in 1997 reached 26.1 billion kW / h, which amounted to about 78% of the country's needs. The most important problem of the power system is the obsolescence of the active equipment of power plants. Almost 60% of it has exhausted its resource, and large-scale technical re-equipment of power plants will be required in the coming years. Recently, a multi-level computer-based automated dispatch control system has been introduced in the power system, operational information and control complexes have been created. Hello to the teacher who reads this!!! Power lines and equipment are equipped with relay protection and emergency automatics.
The fuel industry of Belarus is represented by oil and peat extraction and processing enterprises, among which the largest oil refineries dominate. Their capacities have recently allowed processing about 25 million tons of black gold annually. However, in 1997, due to the lack of raw materials, only 11.9 million tons of black gold were processed.
There are 42 peat mining and peat processing enterprises in the republic, which employ about 11 thousand people. They annually produce 3 million tons of peat, including 2.8 million tons used for the production of peat briquettes and 0.2 million tons for the preparation of peat nutrient mixtures and shipment to. The machine tool industry includes enterprises and firms that produce technological equipment - metal-cutting and woodworking machines, forging and pressing machines, automatic lines for metalworking and assembly, machining centers, technological equipment and tools.
The machine-building complex of the country consists of 34 sub-sectors, including over 600 enterprises. The largest share is occupied by where new species have been created in recent years cars MAZ, BelAZ, the range of models for a specific customer has been expanded, capacities for the production of light vehicles have been modernized, the production of buses and cars. On the territory of the Russian Federation and other CIS countries, Belarusian automobile enterprises have created trading houses and centers Maintenance for sale and company service inspection and repair of equipment during operation.
The production association of enterprises "Minsk Tractor Plant" produces 22 models of universal industrial tractors, 6 models of small-sized tractors, 8 models of motoblocks and mini-tractors, 15 models of special machines for industrial use: utility, loading, logging and mine. Besides, in business merger the production of agricultural machinery is organized. At the Smorgon Aggregate Plant, which is part of association of enterprises PO MTE, agricultural machines and tools for various purposes are already being produced for the MTZ-06/12 motoblocks and MTZ-082 mini-tractors produced at the plant. In the future, it is planned to produce other agricultural machines, deficit which is felt in Belarus.
The production of especially powerful engines for automobile plants in Belarus and the Russian Federation has been launched at the Minsk Motor Plant.
At the Gomel plant of starting engines it is supposed modernization capacities for the production of small-sized engines 10-16 and 16-18 hp, which are in high demand in the domestic and foreign markets.
By 2000, the Minsk Motobicycle Plant was supposed to master the production of new, improved products, including children's two-wheeled and tricycles, cargo bicycles, as well as high-end multi-speed bicycles of the Mountain type, Krokha motorbikes and electric bicycles. The production of "Rial" motorcycles for sports competitions and a three-wheeled cargo motorcycle with a body will also be mastered. It is planned to manufacture several modifications of wheelchairs for patients with disorders of the musculoskeletal functions. All these seemingly good undertakings are overshadowed by the fact that greenhouse conditions for development have been created in the republic for such "chosen" enterprises, while others are forced to fight with the army of officials, and "misunderstanding" authorities who see in any enterprise only a source for feeding the state budget. The industrial potential of science-intensive sub-sectors of mechanical engineering - the radio-electronic and instrument-making industries - is a complex of enterprises, research and design organizations. Once created within the framework of the military-industrial complex of the USSR, these sub-sectors maintain production at the world technological level, however, in the absence of demand for their products, they are forced to draw on budget funds. But still there are exceptions: new competitive productions in the electronic and opto-mechanical industries that arose in the process of conversion, for example, "Integral", etc. Within the framework of joint programs with the Russian Federation, the production of optical-mechanical and control and measuring equipment is being developed and mastered . High-quality updating of technologies and existing equipment increases the competitiveness of industries and their export potential.
The chemical and petrochemical industry produces more than 14.5% of all industrial output. This is one of the industries that is now developing quite well. About 9.5% of industrial and production personnel are employed at 77 enterprises that are on an independent balance sheet. Production assets in the value of fixed production and industrial assets (OPPF) industry account for 21.7%.
The largest production enterprises and associations of enterprises specialize in the production of potash, nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers (PO "Belaruskali", "Azot", Gomel Chemical Plant), chemical fibers and threads (Mogilev, Grodno, Svetlogorsk industrial trust "Khimvolokno"), high-pressure polyethylene , acrylic fibers and products of organic synthesis (PO ""), tires for trucks, cars and agricultural vehicles (Belarusian Tire Plant), which produce 82.6% of the products of the entire chemical and petrochemical industry. More than 60% of potash fertilizers, chemical fibers and threads are exported to non-CIS countries. In the export structure of the republic, the share of chemical products reaches 12%. The share of products certified according to international standards is 5.6%.
According to official statistics, the chemical and petrochemical industry has emerged from the crisis. The increase in production, which began at the end of 1995, has become stable. The growth rates of the industrial production index in 1996 amounted to 107.2%, in 1997 - 117.6%.
Light industry occupies a significant place in the structure of the Belarusian economy. It operates more than 1150 enterprises and industries. In 1997, enterprises of the industry produced products worth 29.9 trillion. rub. (in actual prices), or 8.5% of the total industrial production index of the country.
The Belarusian concern for the production and sale of light industry goods "Bellegprom" includes 84 largest enterprises. They produce more than 85.6% of light industry products. As of January 1, 1998, only 18 enterprises concern remained state. Production capacities for the production of the most important types of products are characterized by the following data.
Prices for domestically produced goods are 15-28% lower than world prices. In 1997, exports of light industry goods amounted to 410.4 million. American dollars, including to non-CIS countries - 181.1 mln. American dollars(this data should be considered subjectively, because the conversion into US dollars was not carried out at the market rate, and some of these goods were supplied at inflated prices on account of our debt Russian Federation). The increase in exports in 1997 amounted to 22.4%. Belarusian light industry goods are supplied to far-abroad countries, mainly to Germany, Italy, Holland, USA, Pakistan, Great Britain.
The timber industry includes 291 enterprises with the status of legal entities. persons, more than 4 thousand auxiliary productions, which are on the balance sheet of industrial, construction, agricultural and other business entities, which employ 101.9 thousand people of industrial and production personnel. In 1997, the main enterprises of the timber industry complex produced products worth 19.8 trillion. Belarusian rubles, which amounted to 5.6% of the total industrial output against 4.4% in 1990.
In the intra-industry structure of the timber industry complex, the woodworking industry dominates. It accounts for 61.3% of the total production. This is followed by pulp and paper - 22.9%, logging - 13.6 and wood chemical industry - 2.1%. In the structure of the woodworking industry, a key role is played by furniture manufacturing- 70% of the volume of issue of securities of products of the sub-sector, or 43% of the volume of production of the industry as a whole.
The structure of exported goods is dominated by furniture (49.1%), wood and trade items from it (29.9%), paper, cardboard and trade items from them (21.0%).
Positive shifts in the export of timber industry products in 1997 compared to 1996 include an increase in the supply of furniture by 129.9 million US dollars (2.2 times) and trade items made of paper (mainly wallpaper) by 22 .1 million US dollars (28%) due to deliveries to Russia. What is important, this is one of the industries that attracts private, more than 15% of wood processing enterprises are non-state, and the share of these enterprises in the trade turnover in the industry is approaching 35%.
Exports of the industry's products to the CIS countries are dominated (95.5%) by the supply of finished trade items: furniture, wallpaper, cardboard containers, trade items of wooden construction, wood boards, matches. Of the total volume of exports of industry products, 81% falls on the CIS countries, including about 70% on the Russian Federation and 19% on non-CIS countries. However, state regulation is strong in this industry, as long as enterprises are not managed through the market, there is no need to talk about any real growth, for example: ., it is planned to implement two major investment projects. JSC "Borisovsky DOK" plans to create a production of medium-density fibreboard with a capacity of 30 thousand m2 per year, of which half will be exported, and the second half will be used in the furniture industry, which will significantly increase the competitiveness of domestic furniture. The trust "Pinskdrev" plans to master the production of large-format plywood that meets the requirements of the European standard. The capacity of the workshop is 30 thousand m2 per year, of which two-thirds of the products are supposed to be exported to non-CIS countries. "Although there are already private enterprises that produce such products. It has been proven in practice that any system of state planning is not able to provide an acceptable growth in industry , it's bad that our "rulers" have not yet understood this. Over 150 types of trade items are produced by enterprises in the building materials and structures industry. Among them are cement, wall and roofing materials, sanitary and technical trade items, etc. More than 20% of manufactured trade items The production of equipment and accessories for the emission of building materials is concentrated at the Mogilev plant "Strommashina", the Gomel plant "Stromavtoliniya" and in the Minsk Association of Enterprises "Strommash".
The industry is working to modernize enterprises, expand the range, improve the quality and competitiveness of products. In 1997, the growth of the industry's output to the level of 1996. reached 28.1%, consumer goods - 18, labor efficiency -24.1%.
One of the best factories of light metal structures in the CIS (Molodechno) operates in Belarus. Equipped with high-performance equipment, the enterprise produces sets of light metal structures for the construction of civil and industrial buildings. The plant has mastered the production of spatial structural coatings, multilayer wall panels with effective heaters. Structural transformations are taking place in most sectors of the country's industry, the most important of which is the reform of state ownership. As of January 1, 1998, 2,690 state facilities have been reformed in the republic, of which 756 are in republican ownership and 1,934 are in communal ownership. The transformed enterprises employ 588,000 people, or 1670 of those employed in the national economy.
To date, GDP growth is 18% annually.
The reform of enterprises owned by the Republic is carried out mainly by transforming them into joint-stock companies, and in communal companies - by selling at an auction and at auctions. Of the total number of republican-owned enterprises reformed as of January 1, 1998, 466 were transformed into joint-stock companies, 133 were bought out by labor and rental collectives, 23 were sold for tender and at auctions, 134 are disposed of in other ways.
The Republic has stepped into the twenty-first century. And the further development of Belarus depends on the choice of the path. The previous ten years have been among the most difficult in its history, the next decade will be no less serious in terms of economic and political restructuring. We already see all insolvency management systems, economic bodies. And although there is an end to the decline in production, the appearance of positive moments in the social sphere, this does not mean that we are on the right path of development. At present, the republic is developing due to the consumption of accumulated means and resources of production, support from the Russian Federation, and very cheap labor. The system of taxation makes it possible to "rob like sticky" enterprises and firms that still somehow keep afloat. In the republic, the share of private business entities is negligible, less than 7%. The economy is dominated by "team" and "plan".
The authorities, however, do not want to admit the failure of the created system and continue to stubbornly blame everyone, from simple "hard workers" to "American spies." Right now, the republic needs significant reforms in the field of economics and politics, small changes will not give the desired result, to get out of a protracted crisis, it is necessary to rebuild the entire management system. Need to create a new taxation system, change the negative attitude of the authorities towards small business and begin to develop it in every possible way. In foreign economic activity, it is high time to look to the West, today the republic needs foreign investment more than ever. It is absolutely necessary to complete privatization, achieve the denationalization of most of the enterprises. Only such bold and deliberate steps can give rise to the economic recovery of the Republic of Belarus in the 21st century.
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