Who developed the main provisions of domestic pathopsychology. Pathopsychology as a science of mental disorders

The history of the development of pathopsychology and forensic pathopsychology as a science

Until the end of the 19th century, most psychiatrists in the world did not use the data of psychology: the futility of its speculative introspective provisions for the needs of the clinic seemed indisputable. Psychiatric journals of the 1960s and 1980s published many works on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, and there were virtually no psychological articles.

Interest in psychology on the part of advanced psychoneurologists arose in connection with a radical turn in its development - the organization in 1879 by W. Wundt in Leipzig of the world's first experimental psychological laboratory. From that moment on, psychology became an independent science, and the further development of psychiatry was unthinkable without an alliance with experimental psychology. “It is no longer possible for a psychiatrist to neglect the provisions of modern psychology, which is based on experiment, and not on speculation,” wrote V.M. Bekhterev (1907).

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, when the psychological laboratories of E. Kraepelin in Germany (1879), P. Janet in France (1890) began to be organized at large psychiatric clinics, V.M. Bekhterev in Kazan (1885), then in St. Petersburg, S.S. Korsakov in Moscow (1886), P.I. Kovalevsky in Kharkov, a special branch of knowledge is singled out - pathological psychology. The laboratories developed experimental psychological methods for studying the disturbed psyche. At the same time, to compare the results, the features of the psyche of healthy people were studied. Since in Russia the official psychological science stubbornly held on to the introspective method, remaining in line with philosophical knowledge, psychiatrists turned out to be the first experimental psychologists. AT oral presentations and on the pages of the press they substantiated the need for the transformation of psychology into an experimental science, proved the inconsistency of speculative speculative constructions.

The most clear idea of ​​the subject and tasks of pathopsychology at the dawn of its formation was contained in the works of V.M. Bekhterev, who defined its subject as "... the study of abnormal manifestations of the mental sphere, since they illuminate the tasks of the psychology of normal persons." (1907). Naming pathological psychology among the branches of "objective psychology", he did not identify the concepts of "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology". Deviations and modifications of normal manifestations of mental activity, according to V.M. Bekhterev, are subject to the same basic laws as a healthy mind. In the Psychoneurological Institute organized by him, courses in general psychopathology and pathological psychology were taught at the same time, i.e. behind them were different disciplines.

Many domestic and foreign scientists, who stood at the very origins of the emerging branch of psychology, noted that its significance goes beyond applied science within the framework of psychiatry.

Mental disorders were considered as an experiment of nature, affecting mostly complex mental phenomena, to which experimental psychology had not yet had an approach. Psychology, thus, received a new tool of knowledge.

In one of the first generalizing works on pathopsychology, Psychopathology as Applied to Psychology (1903), the Swiss psychiatrist G. Sterring suggested that a change in one or another element of mental life as a result of an illness allows one to judge its significance and place in the composition of complex mental phenomena. Pathological material contributes to the formulation of new problems in psychology. In addition, pathopsychological phenomena can serve as a criterion in evaluating psychological theories.

Thus, studies of mental disorders in their very origins were considered by domestic and foreign scientists in line with psychological knowledge. At the same time recognized great importance experimental psychological research for solving the problems of psychiatry.

A significant contribution to the development and formation of foreign pathopsychology was made by the studies of the school of E. Kraepelin and the appearance in the 20s of our century of works on medical psychology. Among them: "Medical Psychology" by E. Kretschmer (1927), which interprets the problems of development and mental disorders from the standpoint of constitutionalism, and "Medical Psychology" by P. Janet (1923), devoted to psychotherapy.

The formation of the principles of domestic pathopsychology was influenced by the work of I.M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" (1863), which brought physiology and psychology together. I.M. himself Sechenov attached great importance to the convergence of psychology and psychiatry and was even going to develop a medical psychology, which he affectionately called his "swan song" (1952). But circumstances did not allow him to carry out his intentions.

I.M. Sechenov in the field of development of medical psychology became V.M. Bekhterev, a psychiatrist by education, the founder of experimental psychology and the founder of pathopsychology.

In his work "Objective Psychology" (1907), he proposed to experimentally investigate various types of activities: how patients identify impressions, identify inconsistencies in drawings and stories, combine verbal symbols and external impressions, complete syllables and words when they are omitted in the text, determine similarities and differences between objects, the formation of a conclusion from two premises, etc.

However, his mistake was that he mechanically split the real activity: he absolutized its external manifestations and ignored the mental image, the motivational component that makes it possible to see the subject of activity in a person.

As for pathopsychological studies, representatives of the school of V.M. Bekhterev, many methods of experimental psychological research of the mentally ill were developed. Some of them (the method of comparing concepts, defining concepts) are among the most used in Russian psychology.

Stored value for modern science and formulated by V.M. Bekhterev and S.D. Vladychko requirements for methods: simplicity (to solve experimental problems, subjects should not have special knowledge and skills) and portability (the possibility of research directly at the patient's bedside, outside the laboratory environment).

The works of the Bechterev school reflect rich concrete material on disorders of perception and memory, mental activity, imagination, attention and mental performance. The results of the experiments were compared with the characteristics of the patient's behavior outside the experimental situation.

The main principles of pathopsychological research in the school of V.M. Ankylosing spondylitis were: the use of a set of techniques, a qualitative analysis of mental disorders, a personal approach, correlation of research results with data from healthy individuals of the appropriate age, gender, education.

The use of a set of methods, observation of the subject during the experiment, taking into account the peculiarities of his behavior outside the experimental situation, the combination of various experimental methods for studying the same pathological phenomena - all this contributed to obtaining rich objective material.

The principle of qualitative analysis, put forward in the period when many researchers were fascinated by measuring methods (the approach to mental disorders as a quantitative decrease in certain abilities), has become traditional in Russian pathopsychology. But the theoretical platform of the scientist, especially during the development of reflexology, limited the analysis to the manifestation of external features of activity. And the recorded objective material was not brought to a truly psychological analysis.

The valuable and fruitful principle of the personal approach was also put forward by V.M. Bekhterev during the dominance of functionalism in the world of experimental psychology. “... Everything that can give an objective observation of the patient, starting with facial expressions and ending with the statements and behavior of the patient, must be taken into account” (1910). But the “objective method” of V.M. Bekhterev contradicted the possibilities of this principle, and the analysis remained incomplete.

In the views of representatives of the school V.M. Bekhterev was greatly influenced by the head of the psychological laboratory of the Psychoneurological Institute A.F. Lazursky. Being a student and collaborator of V.M. Bekhterev, he became the organizer of his own psychological school, which developed mainly issues of individual and educational psychology, but ideas from these branches were also transferred to pathopsychology.

The clinic was introduced developed by A.F. Lazursky for the needs of pedagogical psychology is a natural experiment. It was used in the course of organizing the leisure of patients, their activities and entertainment. For a special purpose, counting problems, rebuses, riddles, tasks to fill in the letters, syllables missed in the test, etc. were offered.

Thus, pathopsychology already in its origins had all the features necessary to establish its scientific independence as a branch of psychological science: the subject of research is mental disorders; methods - the whole arsenal of psychological methods; the conceptual apparatus is the apparatus of psychological science. Another thing is what content was invested in the concept of the psyche by representatives of various psychological currents.

At the school of V.M. Bekhterev's connection with psychiatry was carried out through participation in the reconstruction of a psychopathological syndrome characteristic of various mental illnesses. Pato psychological methods used in children's and forensic examinations. V.M. Bekhterev and N.M. Shchelovanov wrote that the data of pathological psychology make it possible to almost unmistakably recognize mentally incompetent schoolchildren in order to allocate them to special institutions for the backward.

V.M. Bekhterev did not consider the study of the psyche of the mentally ill the key to understanding the inner world of the healthy. From the norm to pathology, in order to return the patient to neuropsychic health, this should be the path of the psychiatrist's thoughts. Therefore, both in the practice of training a neuropathologist and a psychiatrist, and in the scientific psychiatric searches of the school of V.M. Bekhterev's psychology of a normal person occupied a place of honor.

Versatile concrete research and the development of elementary theoretical foundations allow us to consider the contribution of the school of V.M. Bekhterev in pathopsychology as the starting point for the formation of this industry in Russia.

The second major center of Russian psychiatry, in which experimental psychology developed, was the psychiatric clinic of S.S. Korsakov, organized in 1887 at the medical faculty of Moscow University. Like all representatives of progressive trends in psychiatry, S.S. Korsakov was of the opinion that only knowledge of the fundamentals of psychological science makes it possible to correctly understand the decay of the mental activity of the mentally ill. It is no coincidence that he began reading the course of psychiatry with a presentation of the foundations of psychology.

S.S. Korsakov and his collaborators were the organizers and participants of the Moscow Psychological Society. His school has made a valuable contribution to the understanding of the mechanisms of memory and its disorders, the mechanisms and disorders of thinking. The famous "Korsakov's syndrome" gave an idea of ​​the temporal structure of human memory, laid the foundation for dividing the types of memory into short and long-term. In the work "On the psychology of microcephaly" S.S. Korsakov wrote about the lack of "the guiding function of the mind" in idiots, which makes human actions meaningful and expedient (1894).

As a rule, the leading psychoneurologists of pre-revolutionary Russia were the conductors of the advanced ideas of psychology and contributed to its development in the scientific and organizational direction. They were members of scientific psychological societies, editors and authors of psychological journals.

The development of pathopsychology as a special field of knowledge was greatly influenced by the ideas of the outstanding Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky. In his research, L.S. Vygotsky established the following: the science of regularities development and functioning... history formation of psychological science and her development... psychology, how judicial psychology, ... , neuropsychology, pathopsychology, psychopathology, psychogenetics...

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Industries how pathopsychology, psychosomatics, psychology of abnormal development; connection... how judicial psychology, victim psychology, criminal psychology, crime investigation psychology. [edit] Story... name in stories psychology how science - ...

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Introduction

1 Development of pathopsychology

2 Pathopsychology as a research method

3 The view of pathopsychology on the relationship between the development and decay of the psyche

4 Compensatory mechanisms in the painful process of personality

Conclusion

Literature

INTRODUCTION

Pathopsychology is a branch of psychological science. Her data are of theoretical and practical importance for psychology and psychiatry. Pathopsychology is a psychological science; its problems, its prospects and achievements cannot be considered in isolation from the development and state of general psychology.

Being a section of general psychology, pathopsychology proceeds from its theoretical provisions and is aimed at resolving the tasks assigned to it by the practice of a psychiatric clinic. Since pathopsychology is located at the intersection of two sciences: psychiatry and psychology, its data are important for theoretical and practical issues of both branches of knowledge.

The study of changes in the psyche is one of the important ways of analyzing the structure of mental activity in the norm and developing a general psychological theory. No less important are the data of pathopsychological studies for the theoretical and practical issues of psychiatry.

Pathopsychology, like any other branch of psychology, studying the psyche, has its own specifics. In this paper, we will consider the basic concepts of the subject of pathopsychology, its development and influence on various fields of science.

1 DEVELOPMENT OF PATHOPSYCHOLOGY

Domestic pathopsychology was born at the beginning of the 20th century, and was brought to life by the demands of psychiatric practice and the achievements of psychological science.

Interest in psychology on the part of advanced psychoneurologists arose in connection with a radical turn in its development - the organization in 1879 by W. Wundt in Leipzig of the world's first experimental psychological laboratory. The introduction of the methods of natural science into psychology pulled it out of the bosom of idealistic philosophy. Psychology became an independent science.

At the beginning of the XX century. researchers of mental disorders herald the isolation of a special branch of knowledge - pathological psychology. In the literature of those years, there is still an undifferentiated use of the terms "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology". So, A. Gregor writes: "Experimental psychopathology studies the performance of mental functions under abnormal conditions created by a painful process underlying mental illness." “Special research conditions, and even more special formulation of questions given by the needs of a psychiatric clinic, led to the formation of an independent discipline - experimental psychopathology, which is in contact with, but does not merge with, clinical psychiatry, general and individual psychology,” wrote P.M. Zinoviev, "the scientific discipline that studies the mental life of the mentally ill is called psychopathology or pathological psychology ...".

The confusion of the concepts of "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology" occurred due to the lack of a clear differentiation of the tasks of psychology and psychiatry during the initial accumulation of factual material in specific studies of mental anomalies, especially since researchers, as a rule, combined both a psychiatrist and a psychologist in one person.

The most clear idea of ​​the subject and tasks of pathopsychology at the dawn of its formation was contained in the works of V.M. Bekhtereva: “The latest advances in psychiatry, which are largely due to clinical research mental disorders at the bedside of the patient, served as the basis of a special branch of knowledge known as pathological psychology, which has already led to the resolution of very many psychological problems and from which, no doubt, even more can be expected in this respect in the future. The scientist defined its subject: "... the study of abnormal manifestations of the mental sphere, since they illuminate the tasks of the psychology of normal persons" . Deviations and modifications of normal manifestations of mental activity, according to V.M. Bekhterev, are subject to the same basic laws as a healthy mind.

In one of the first generalizing works on pathopsychology, Psychopathology as Applied to Psychology, the Swiss psychiatrist H. Sterring suggested that a change in one or another element of mental life as a result of an illness allows one to judge its significance and place in the composition of complex mental phenomena. Pathological material contributes to the formulation of new problems in psychology, in addition, pathopsychological phenomena can serve as a criterion for evaluating psychological theories.

The development of pathopsychology as a special field of knowledge was greatly influenced by the ideas of the outstanding Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky:

The human brain has different principles of organization than the animal brain;

The development of higher mental functions is not predetermined by the morphological structure of the brain; they arise not as a result of the maturation of brain structures alone, but are formed in vivo by appropriating the experience of mankind in the process of communication, training, and education;

The defeat of the same zones of the cortex has an unequal significance at different stages of mental development.

Thus, pathopsychology already in its origins had all the features necessary to establish its scientific independence as a branch of psychological science: the subject of research is mental disorders; methods - the whole arsenal of psychological methods; the conceptual apparatus is the apparatus of psychological science.

Pathopsychology is one of the intensively and fruitfully developing areas of psychology. Pathopsychology (from the Greek pathos - suffering, illness) is a branch of clinical psychology that studies the patterns of decay of mental activity and personality traits in comparison with the patterns of formation and flow of mental processes in the norm. Zeigarnik, the founder of Russian pathopsychology, is a student of Levin, the world famous German psychologist. She developed the theoretical foundations of pathopsychology, described disorders of mental processes, formulated the principles of work of a pathopsychologist .

2 PATHOPSYCHOLOGY AS A RESEARCH METHOD

Research in the field of pathopsychology is of great importance for many communities. theoretical questions psychology. Let's stop only on some of them.

One of them concerns the role of the personal component in the structure of cognitive activity. Modern psychology has overcome the view of the psyche as a set of "mental functions". Cognitive processes - perception, memory, thinking - began to be considered as various forms of objective, or, as it is often called, "meaningful" activity of the subject. In the works of A.N. Leontiev shows that any activity gets its characteristics through motivation. Consequently, the role of the motivational (personal) factor should be included in the characterization of the structure of all our mental processes. P.Ya. Galperin, who created the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions, includes the formation of a motive for solving a problem as the first stage. All these propositions of Soviet psychology found their expression in general theoretical principles. However, they are difficult to prove experimentally when dealing with established processes. In genetic terms, this is easier to do. In a certain sense, this possibility also presents itself in the analysis of various forms of disturbances in mental activity.

This was very clearly revealed in the study of the pathology of perception by E.T. Sokolova. It was shown how, under the influence of a differently motivated instruction, the process of perception took the form of an activity, then an action, then an operation. The very process of putting forward hypotheses and their very content change under the influence of motivation.

The motivational component in the structure of disturbed thinking comes out even more clearly. Such a disorder of thinking as “diversity”, as a tendency to actualize properties and connections that have not been consolidated in past experience, is an expression of a change in its motivational component. Experimental psychological studies have revealed that various forms of disturbed thinking appear in various disorders of the motivational sphere (B.V. Zeigarnik, Talat Mansur Gabriel). In other words, the "factor" "responsible" for many manifestations of cognitive activity is the "motivational bias" of patients. This fact is of fundamental importance: it proves that all our processes are differently designed activities, mediated, personally motivated.

The second question of general theoretical significance, for the solution of which it seems expedient to involve pathological material, is the question of the relationship between the biological and the psychological in human development. Involvement of various forms of anomaly can be useful in solving this problem. Although the biological characteristics of the disease and the psychological patterns of development are constantly involved in the formation of pathological symptoms, such as pathological motives, needs, their role is fundamentally different.

The formation of the personality of a sick person is based on psychological patterns (mechanisms), in many respects similar to the patterns of normal mental development. However, the disease process (alcoholic encephalopathy, increasing inertia in epilepsy, etc.) creates special conditions for the functioning of psychological mechanisms that have no analogue in normal development, which lead to a distorted pathological development of the personality.

Thus, the biological characteristics of the disease are not direct, immediate causes of mental disorders. They change the course of mental processes, i.e. play the role of the conditions in which the actual psychological process unfolds - the process of the formation of an abnormal personality. This conclusion is consistent with the general provisions of science. A.N. Leontiev emphasizes that biologically inherited properties are only one (albeit very important) of the conditions for the formation of mental functions. The main condition for their formation is the mastery of the world of objects and phenomena created by mankind. The same two conditions operate in pathological development, but their relation varies considerably. In the position of S.L. Rubinstein says that external causes refracted through internal conditions. However, if during normal development external causes (social influences in the broad sense of the word) lead to an adequate reflection of reality, then the disease creates special conditions for the flow of mental processes, which, on the contrary, lead to a distorted reflection of reality and hence to the formation and consolidation of a distorted attitude to the world, to the emergence of pathological personality traits.

In some diseases, needs and motives that require complex organized activity for their satisfaction become less and less effective, those needs that can be satisfied by little-mediated actions, the structure of which brings them closer to drives (with alcohol), become decisive. In other cases, changes in those properties of mental activity that provide regulation of behavior and purposefulness came to the fore (patients with damage to the frontal lobes of the brain). For example, in the studies of B.V. Zeigarnik, I.I. Kozhukhov's self-assessment, the level of claims of these patients made it possible to reveal that changes in intentions and needs led to a weakening of the goal of actions and that a critical assessment of the results of one's own actions was violated.

It does not follow from the foregoing that the mechanisms and motives of human activity should be studied through the analysis of a pathologically altered psyche. On the contrary, pathopsychological studies show that the activity of a healthy person differs from that of a sick person. A direct transfer of the personality traits of patients to the typology of a healthy person is unlawful.

This thesis is important not only in resolving theoretical issues, but also in constructing experimental psychological techniques. Just like in the analysis psychological activity, when choosing research methods, the principle of analysis should be preserved: from the laws of a healthy psyche to pathology.

Data from the breakdown of mental activity may be useful in elucidating the question of the social and biological in human development. A number of researchers, following E. Kretschmer, believe that mental illness leads to the "release" of innate instincts (aggressive tendencies) and biological "lower" needs, that the degradation of the personality means a kind of "release" of biological (hereditary) needs. Violation of the personality does not consist in the release of biological needs (the need for alcohol or morphine is neither organic nor innate in origin), but in the disintegration of the structure of needs that have been formed during life. The degradation of the personality consists in the fact that the structure of the most socially conditioned need changes: it becomes less mediated, less conscious, the hierarchical structure of motives is lost, their meaning-forming function changes, distant motives disappear.

In summary, it should be emphasized that psychological analysis various forms of disturbances in the activity of mental patients is a valuable material that should be taken into account when constructing a psychological theory, especially when studying such a complex issue as the structure of the need-motivational sphere of a person. The foregoing does not mean at all that it is necessary to derive the patterns of development and formation of the motivational sphere of a healthy person from the patterns of development of motives and personal characteristics of the patient, as is done in personality psychology in foreign countries.

On the contrary, pathological material shows the difference in the hierarchy and meaning formation of the motives of a sick and healthy person. The study of anomalies in personal and cognitive activity proves the general position of Soviet psychology that the formation of any form of activity does not follow directly from the brain, but goes through a long and complex path of life-long formation, in which the perception of the natural properties and relations of objects and phenomena, social experience and social norms are intertwined.

3 PATHOPSICHOLOGY'S VIEW ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND DECAY OF THE PSYCHE

To solve the question of the relationship between the biological and the social, an important role is played by the elucidation of the question of the relationship between the development and decay of the psyche, on which we want to dwell in more detail.

The problem of the relationship between the decay and development of the psyche is of great importance for the theory of psychology and psychiatry, for understanding the structure of human mental activity.

L.S. Vygotsky, who paid much attention to the problem of the development and maturation of the child's psyche, emphasized that in order to correctly elucidate this problem, knowledge of the data on the disintegration of the psyche is necessary. At the same time, he emphasized that when it comes to the development and maturation of man, the genetic approach applied to animals cannot simply be continued, since in the transition to man, the laws of biological evolution give way to the laws of socio-historical development. The question arises as to whether the problem of the relationship between the decay and development of the psyche can be solved in psychology in the same way as in biology.

As is known, research in the field of pathological anatomy has established that in diseases of the brain, first of all, young people are affected, i.e. phylogenetically the latest developed, formations of the cerebral cortex.

Experimental studies by I.P. Pavlov and his collaborators on animals confirm the thesis that in pathology, what was acquired later is violated first of all. Thus, acquired conditioned reflexes are destroyed in diseases of the brain much more easily than unconditioned ones. Further research in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity has established that the defeat of phylogenetically later formations entails a weakening of their regulatory role and leads to the “release” of the activity of earlier ones.

From these data, we can conclude that in some diseases of the brain, human behavior and actions are performed at a lower level, corresponding to a supposedly certain stage of child development. Based on the concept of the regression of the psyche of a mentally ill person to a lower ontogenetic level, many researchers have tried to find a correspondence between the structure of the decay of the psyche and a certain stage of childhood.

These views are based on the idea of ​​the layer-by-layer disintegration of the psyche from its higher forms to the lower ones. The material that feeds these ideas was the following observations:

With many mental illnesses, patients cease to cope with more complex species activities, while maintaining simple skills and abilities;

Some forms of disorders in thinking and behavior of patients in their external structure really resemble the thinking and behavior of a child at a certain stage of his development.

However, on closer examination, these observations turn out to be untenable. First of all, the disintegration of higher functions is not always found in illness. Quite often it is violations of elementary sensorimotor acts that form the basis for complex pictures of the disease.

Let's consider some of them. Let us dwell on violations of skills, since their ontogenetic formation is especially clear. Data from S.Ya. Rubinstein, who studied the decay of various skills - writing, reading, habitual actions in mentally ill people of late age, revealed their different structure. In diseases of the cerebral vessels without focal symptoms, discoordination, intermittency of actions and parapraxia, awkwardness of movements, which were due to coarsened and delayed cortical correction of movements, were observed.

In patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease (an atrophic brain disease), a loss of motor stereotypes (writing, reading), a loss of complex human skills due to the loss of past experience are revealed. No compensatory mechanisms could be identified in them, while skill impairments in patients vascular diseases of the brain were “framed” by compensatory mechanisms (which, in turn, complicated the picture of disorders). Consequently, the decay of skills is complex. In some cases, its mechanism is a violation of the dynamics, in others - a violation of compensatory mechanisms, in some cases the very structure of the action is violated. In all these forms of skill impairment, no mechanism of action has been found that resembles the stage of skill development in a child.

If we turn to the patterns of development of mental processes by stages of childhood (infancy, pre-preschool, preschool, junior, middle, senior school age, etc.), on the one hand, and to the forms of decay, on the other, it is easy to see that none of diseases does not lead to the construction of mental characteristics characteristic of these stages.

This state of affairs also follows from the general principles of Soviet psychology. Mental activity arises reflexively on the basis of socially conditioned connections that are formed in vivo as a result of upbringing, training and communication.

Soviet psychologists (A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria) have repeatedly emphasized that the material substratum of higher mental functions is not individual cortical areas or centers, but a functional system of cortical zones that work together. These functional systems do not mature independently at the birth of a child, but are formed in the process of his life, only gradually acquiring the character of complex, strong interfunctional connections.

These provisions radically change our understanding of the essence of the development of the psyche: mental processes and personality traits are not (unlike the psyche of animals) the result of the maturation of individual sections or zones of the brain.

Mental illness proceeds according to biological laws that cannot repeat the laws of development. Even in those cases when it affects the youngest, specifically human parts of the brain, the psyche of a sick person does not accept the structure of the psyche of a child at an early stage of his development. The fact that patients lose the ability to think and reason at a higher level only means that they have lost more complex forms of behavior and cognition, but such a loss does not yet mean a return to the stage of childhood. Decay is not a negative development. Different types of pathology lead to qualitatively different patterns of decay.

4 COMPENSATORY MECHANISMS IN THE ILLNESS PROCESS OF THE PERSON

Compensation is ontologically the latest and cognitively complex defense mechanism. It is designed to contain feelings of sadness, grief over a real or imaginary loss, loss, lack, lack, inferiority. Compensation involves an attempt to correct or find a substitute for this inferiority.

The author of the description of the protective mechanisms of compensation and hypercompensation is A. Adler. He developed a theory explaining the causes, intensity of diseases and their localization in the body. He suggested that each person's individual organs are weaker than others, making them more susceptible to disease and injury. Moreover, Adler believed that each person has a disease of precisely that organ that was less developed, functioned less successfully and, in general, was defective from birth. Adler observed that people with severe organic weakness or defect often try to compensate for these defects through training and exercises, which often leads to the development of outstanding skill in this area.

A. Adler pointed out that the compensation process also takes place in the mental sphere: people often strive not only to compensate for the insufficiency of an organ, but they also develop a subjective feeling of inferiority, which develops from a sense of their own psychological or social impotence. Feelings of inferiority different reasons may become excessive. In response to feelings of inferiority, the individual develops two forms of defense mechanisms: compensation and overcompensation. Hypercompensation is manifested in the fact that a person tries to develop those data that are poorly developed in him.

For example, a child with poor eyesight later becomes an outstanding artist, or a great example is the “model of Demosthenes”, who became an excellent orator. Being lisp since childhood, Demosthenes, correcting his diction, practiced a lot, making speeches with stones in his mouth. He managed to achieve perfection in speech technique.

Compensation is manifested in the fact that instead of developing the missing quality, a person begins to intensively develop the trait that is already well developed in him, thereby compensating for his lack. For example, a physically weak child achieves great skill in the game of chess. This type of compensation is called indirect, reducing the severity of unpleasant experiences. Some authors consider several types of compensation as indirect compensation: sublimation, substitution, facade, mask, screening.

A somewhat different compensatory mechanism was proposed by K.G. Jung, who developed the theory of complexes, according to which each person is essentially multiple. A complex is understood as a combination of associations with physiological reactions that have their own energy, which tends to form, as it were, a separate small personality.

Some believe that the only and exclusive basis for compensatory processes is the subjective reaction of the personality of the person himself to the situation that is created as a result of a defect. This theory assumes that the necessary and only source of the emergence of compensatory processes of development is the realization by him of his own insufficiency, the emergence of a sense of his own inferiority. From the emergence of this feeling, from the consciousness of one's own insufficiency, a reactive desire arises to overcome this difficult feeling, to overcome this conscious own insufficiency, to raise oneself to a higher level.

Others believe that the study of the simplest organic compensatory processes and their comparison with others lead to a factually justified statement: the source, the primary incentive for the emergence of compensatory processes are those objective difficulties that a person encounters in the process of development. He seeks to circumvent or overcome these difficulties with the help of a whole series of such formations that were not initially given in his development. We observe the fact that a person, when faced with difficulties, is forced to take a detour in order to overcome them. We observe that from the process of interaction of the individual with the environment, a situation is created that pushes on the path of compensation.

Still others have shown that painful symptoms can occur in a compensatory way. Compensation can lead along the path of real and fictitious, false equalization of deficiencies; The central point that interests researchers in the approach to compensation is the distinction between these two lines of real and fictitious developmental compensation. Compensation as a source of additional, useful moments cannot be disputed, but a compensatory moment can also have a painful character. This is also true. It is methodologically significant to distinguish between additional symptoms that arise in a compensatory way and normalizing, smoothing, leveling the insufficiency of processes, raising the development from the symptoms of fictitious compensation to a higher level.

pathopsychology compensatory mechanism

CONCLUSION

Thus, pathopsychology is one of the intensively and fruitfully developing areas of psychology that studies the laws of the decay of mental activity and personality traits in comparison with the laws of the formation and course of mental processes in the norm. Leading psychologists used the data of pathopsychological studies to solve their theoretical problems (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, V.N. Myasishchev, P.Ya. Galperin, etc.).

The importance of pathopsychology has grown in psychocorrectional work, which is carried out in different types psychological service: psychocorrection and prevention in the somatic clinic and the clinic of neuroses, outpatient departments of crisis conditions, "helplines", etc.

The network of laboratories for the restoration of both individual impaired functions and the ability to work of sick people is expanding. The participation of psychologists is now becoming not only necessary, but often the leading factor both in diagnostic work and in the field of prevention and psychocorrection of mental disorders.

Pathopsychological research in children's neuropsychiatric institutions has received particular development. Techniques are being developed to facilitate early diagnosis mental retardation; analysis of complex pictures of underdevelopment in childhood is carried out in order to search for additional differential diagnostic signs and symptoms; pathopsychologists are developing methods of "learning experiment" aimed at identifying prognostic important signs of learning ability, methods of game psychocorrection are being developed.

LITERATURE

1. Belozertseva V.I. Violations of associative activity / Problems of psychophysiology. Diagnosis of disorders and restoration of mental functions of a person, part 2. (Abstracts for the VI All-Union Congress of Psychologists of the USSR). - M., 1983.

2. Vygotsky L.S. Selected psychological studies. - M., 1960. - 449 p.

3. Vygotsky L.S. Fundamentals of defectology. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 2003. - 654 p.

4. Gesell A. Mental development of the child. - M.: L., 1930.

5. Zeigarnik B.V. Pathopsychology. - M.: Eksmo-Press, 2000. - 576 p.

6. Zeigarnik B.V., Bratus B.S. Essays on the psychology of abnormal personality development. - M., 1980.

7. Clinical psychology: Textbook. 3rd ed. / Ed. B.D. Karvasarsky. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - 960 p.

8. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - M., 1946.

9. Sokolova E.T. Motivation and perception in health and disease. - M., 1976. - 174 p.

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Vygotsky's contribution to the theoretical basis of the methods of pathopsychology. Methods with the help of which the features of cognitive processes, the emotional sphere and the personality-typological properties of the mentally ill are studied. Characteristics of the methods of neuropsychology.

(The chapter was written jointly with V. I. Belozertseva) Domestic pathopsychology has a different history of development than modern clinical psychology in the West. However, they were born at the same time, at the beginning of the 20th century, and were brought to life by the demands of psychiatric practice and the achievements of psychological science. Until the end of the 19th century. most psychiatrists in the world did not use the data of psychology: the futility of its speculative introspective provisions for the needs of the clinic was obvious. In psychiatric journals of the 60-80s. of the last century, many works were published on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system and, in fact, there were no psychological articles. psychological laboratory. The introduction of the methods of natural science into psychology pulled it out of the bosom of idealistic philosophy. Psychology became an independent science. And the further development of psychiatry was unthinkable without an alliance with experimental psychology. "It is no longer possible for a psychiatrist to neglect the provisions of modern psychology, which is based on experiment, and not on speculation," wrote V. M. Bekhterev. "Let's leave the creativity of artists to reproduce the inner world of the mentally ill, to recreate their emotional experiences, which some of them (Dostoevsky, Garshin, etc.) achieve much better than doctors ...". At large psychiatric clinics at the end of the 19th century. psychological laboratories began to be organized - E. Kraepelin in Germany (1879), P. Janet in France (1890). Experimental psychological laboratories were also opened at psychiatric clinics in Russia - the second in Europe laboratory of V. M. Bekhterev in Kazan (1885), then in St. Petersburg, the laboratories of S. S. Korsakov in Moscow (1886), V. F. Chizh in Yuriev , I. A. Sikorsky in Kyiv, P. I. Kovalevsky in Kharkov. A number of laboratories were organized in the USA and England. Experimental psychological methods for studying the disturbed psyche were developed in the laboratories. At the same time, to compare the results, the features of the psyche of healthy people were studied. Since in Russia the official psychological science stubbornly held on to the introspective method, remaining in line with philosophical knowledge, psychiatrists turned out to be the first experimental psychologists. In oral presentations and on the pages of the press, they substantiated the need to turn psychology into an experimental science, proved the inconsistency of speculative speculative constructions: “Science must be accurate and cannot be content with analogy, assumptions. .. and even more so, he cannot put up with the products of fantasy and creativity in the place of reality ". At the beginning of the 20th century, researchers of mental disorders announced the isolation of a special branch of knowledge - pathological psychology. In the literature of those years, there is still an undifferentiated use of the terms "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology". Thus, A. Gregor (1910) writes: "Experimental psychopathology studies the performance of mental functions under abnormal conditions created by a painful process underlying mental illness." psychiatric clinic, led to the formation of an independent discipline - experimental psychopathology, adjoining, but not merging with ... clinical psychiatry, general and individual psychology, "wrote P. M. Zinoviev," the scientific discipline that studies the mental life of the mentally ill is called psychopathology or pathological psychol ogy...". The confusion of the concepts of "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology" occurred due to the lack of a clear differentiation of the tasks of psychology and psychiatry during the initial accumulation of factual material in specific studies of mental anomalies, especially since researchers, as a rule, in one person combined both a psychiatrist and a psychologist. The clearest idea of ​​the subject and tasks of pathopsychology at the dawn of its formation was contained in the works of V. M. Bekhterev: known as pathological psychology (italics mine). - B. 3.), which has already led to the resolution of very many psychological problems and from which, no doubt, even more can be expected in this regard in the future ". Calling pathological psychology among the branches of" objective psychology ", the scientist defined its subject:" ... the study of abnormal manifestations of the mental sphere, since they illuminate the tasks of the psychology of normal persons "- Deviations and modifications of normal manifestations of mental activity, according to V. M. Bekhterev, are subject to the same basic laws as a healthy psyche. Thus, V. M. Bekhterev no longer identified the concepts of “pathopsychology” and “psychopathology.” In the Psychoneurological Institute he organized, courses in general psychopathology and pathological psychology were taught simultaneously, i.e. different disciplines stood behind them. At the very origins of the emerging branch of psychology, many domestic and foreign scientists noted that its significance went beyond the limits of science applied to psychiatry. Mental disorders were considered as an experiment of nature, affecting mostly complex mental phenomena, to which experimental psychology has not yet had an approach. Psychology, thus, received a new tool of knowledge. "The disease turns into a subtle tool of analysis," T. Ribot wrote. "It produces experiments for us that are impossible in any other way." that a change in one or another element of mental life as a result of an illness makes it possible to judge its significance and place in the composition of complex mental phenomena. Pathological material contributes to the formulation of new problems in psychology, in addition, pathopsychological phenomena can serve as a criterion for evaluating psychological theories. In the preface to the Russian translation of the work of G. Störring, V.M. between the individual elements of complex mental processes appear much brighter and more prominently than in the normal state.For example, in pathological cases, the constituent elements of the consciousness of the individual are better clarified, the meaning in the mental life of mood and the sensitive sphere in general is more vivid, the factors that determine the processes of memory, associations are more fully clarified and judgments, etc. In view of this, it is natural that modern psychologists are increasingly turning to psychopathology for clarification of many controversial issues. "A.F. Lazursky expressed similar thoughts:" The data obtained by the pathology of the soul were forced to be revised, and In many cases and subject to a thorough revision many important departments of normal psychology. There appeared "the ability to consider the mental properties of a person as if through a magnifying glass, which makes such details clear to us, the existence of which in normal subjects can only be guessed at." Thus, studies of mental disorders in their very origins were considered by domestic and foreign scientists in line with psychological knowledge. At the same time, the great importance of experimental psychological research for solving the problems of psychiatry was recognized. So, in connection with the studies of mental disorders E. Krepelin and his collaborators V. Henri pointed out that experimental psychology provides methods that allow one to notice minor changes in the state of the patient's mental functions, "to follow the course of the disease step by step", observing the positive or negative effect of treatment methods. Doctors usually see only major changes that make it impossible to fine-tune the treatment process. We will not discuss the development of pathopsychology abroad. Let us only note the significant contribution to its formation of research by the school of E. Kraepelin and the appearance in the 1920s. of our century of works on medical psychology by well-known, foreign psychiatrists: "Medical Psychology" by E. Kretschmer, which interprets the problems of development and mental disorders from positions of constitutionalism that are unacceptable to us, and "Medical Psychology" by P. Janet, devoted mainly to issues of psychotherapy. * * History formation and development of foreign and domestic pathopsychology is not sufficiently studied and represented in our literature. If progressive psychiatrists stood at the origins of foreign pathopsychology, then in the future this branch developed and develops under the influence of the ideas of various areas of bourgeois psychology - behaviorism, psychoanalysis, humanistic and existential psychology. Of course, one cannot deny the positive value, for example, for the practice of psychotherapy, of the ideas of K. Rogers, G. Allport, A. Maslow. However, the theoretical provisions of these areas are methodologically untenable; in the practice of foreign pathopsychology, the main emphasis is not on the experiment, but on the measurement and correlation of individual features, personality traits; practical psychological service is influenced by the ideas of the so-called "anti-psychiatry" and "community psychology." Developed domestic pathopsychology from the very beginning was distinguished by strong natural science traditions. The formation of its principles and methods of research was influenced by the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" (1863), which punched a "hole in the wall" separating physiology and psychology. I. M. Sechenov himself attached great importance to the convergence of psychology and psychiatry. In a letter to M. A. Bokova, the father of Russian physiology announced his intention to engage in psychological experiments and develop medical psychology, which he lovingly called his "swan song" . But circumstances did not allow him to carry out his intentions. I. M. Sechenov's successor on this path was V. M. Bekhterev, a psychiatrist by education, the founder of materialistically oriented experimental psychology and the founder of the pathopsychological trend in Russia. As a representative of the reflex concept, he considered the only scientific objective method for studying mental activity, requiring, if possible, to cover the entire set of facts of the external manifestation of the neuropsyche and related conditions ... ". The theory he developed gives the impression that the school of V. M. Bekhterev was engaged exclusively in physiology.* However, the formulation of research was aimed mainly at the analysis of the implementation of experimental tasks, and not at the features of neurodynamics. and offered to experimentally investigate various types of activities: how patients identify impressions, identify inconsistencies in drawings and stories, combine verbal symbols and external impressions, fill in syllables and words when they are omitted in the text, def. the division of similarities and differences between objects, the formation of a conclusion from two premises, etc. ), "concentration" (attention), "combination of traces" (associations), "general tone", or "mood" (feelings), etc. But in the course of the struggle against subjective-idealistic psychology, V. M. Bekhterev, who had not mastered dialectical materialism, came to the creation of "reflexology", in which he mechanically split real activity: he absolutized its external manifestations and ignored the mental image. Activity was emasculated from its motivational component, which made it possible to see in a person the subject of activity. It should be noted that despite this, in the specific works of the Bekhterev school, the departure from psychological terminology and the corresponding analysis declared in theory was not always carried out. As for pathopsychological research, most of them were carried out in the pre-reflexological period of V. M. Bekhterev’s work, when such a task was not set at all. The range of pathopsychological research can be judged from doctoral dissertations carried out under the guidance of V. M. Bekhterev: L. S Pavlovskaya. Experimental psychological studies on patients "with increasing paralytic dementia (1907); M. I. Astvatsaturov. Clinical and experimental psychological studies of speech function (1908); K. N. Zavadovsky. The nature of associations in patients with chronic primary insanity (1909); A. V. Ilyin. On the Processes of Concentration (Attention) in Demented Mentally Ill (1909); L. G. Gutman. Experimental psychological research in manic-melancholic psychosis (1909); V.V. Abramov. Objective-psychological study of creativity and other intellectual functions in the mentally ill (1911), etc. Representatives of the school of V. M. Bekhterev developed many methods of experimental psychological study of the mentally ill. Some of them (the method of comparing concepts, defining concepts) were among the most used in Soviet psychology. They retained their significance for modern science and the requirements for methods formulated by V. M. Bekhterev and S. D. Vladychko: simplicity (for solving experimental problems, subjects do not must have special knowledge, skills) and portability (the ability to study directly at the bedside of the patient, outside the laboratory environment). The works of the Bekhterev school reflect rich concrete material on disorders of perception and memory, mental activity, imagination, attention and mental performance. The results of the experiments were compared with the characteristics of the patient's behavior outside the experimental situation. The case histories written from the standpoint of objective psychology contain information valuable for psychological analysis about violations of personality, consciousness and self-awareness, and the emotional-volitional sphere. They are presented in dynamics, which makes it possible to see the conditions and stages of development of a mental defect, manifested in the real life of a person. Some pathopsychological studies of the school are of interest as a historical fact of the "activity" approach to mental phenomena. Thus, in the multilateral studies of V. M. Bekhterev's colleagues, associations do not act as a mechanical linkage of ideas, but as a result of activity that depends on its structure and dynamics. Or, for example, speech is analyzed in a system of holistic behavior; its features in the experimental conversation are compared with the patient's speech in other circumstances; it is shown that similar speech reactions can have a different nature, the absence or distortion of a speech reaction is possible not only because of mental deficiency, but also as an expression of negativism, "involuntary, but conscious desire of patients to evade external influence on their will" . All this objective material may well be analyzed in line with the modern theory of activity. The main principles of pathopsychological research at the school of V. M. Bekhterev were: the use of a set of techniques, a qualitative analysis of a mental disorder, a personal approach, correlation of the study results with data from healthy individuals of the appropriate age, gender, education. The use of a set of techniques is to monitor the subject during the experiment, taking into account the peculiarities of his behavior outside the experimental situation, the combination of various experimental methods for studying the same pathological phenomena - contributed to obtaining rich objective material. other abilities), has become traditional in Russian pathopsychology. But the theoretical platform of the scientist, especially during the development of reflexology, limited the analysis to the flow of external features of activity. And the recorded objective material was not brought to a truly psychological analysis. The valuable and fruitful principle of the personal approach was also put forward by V. M. Bekhterev during the period of domination of functionalism in world experimental psychology: “The personality of the patient and its attitude to the experiment is not left unattended by the experimenter. . .. Everything that can give an objective observation of the patient, starting with facial expressions and ending with the statements and behavior of the patient, must be taken into account ... evaluated in connection with all the conditions of the experiment, not excluding those immediately preceding the experiment ". But the "objective method" of V. M. Bekhterev contradicted the possibilities of this principle, and the analysis remained incomplete. The representative of the school of V. M. Bekhterev, K. I. goes towards the experimenter in his aspirations, the mentally ill person may relate to experience in a completely different way: he may be careless about the work offered to him, perform it somehow due to complete indifference to the interests of experience or hidden unwillingness, or distracting delusions and hallucinations; he, finally , may refuse the experiment altogether due to suspicion, etc." . In this regard, the question was raised about the skillful individual approach of the experimenter to the patient, one that would encourage participation in the experiment. In the views of K. I. Povarnin and other representatives of the school of V. M. Bekhterev was greatly influenced by the head of the psychological laboratory of the Psychoneurological Institute A.F. Lazursky. Being a student and collaborator of V. M. Bekhterev, he became the organizer of his own psychological school. In the preface to A. F. Lazursky's book "Psychology General and Experimental," L. S. Vygotsky wrote that its author belongs to those researchers who were on the path of transforming empirical psychology into a scientific one. A.F. Lazursky himself developed mainly questions of individual and pedagogical psychology, but ideas from these branches were also transferred to pathopsychology. So, K. I. Povarnin pointed out the need to take into account the individual characteristics of patients, since sometimes defects are found where individual characteristics are actually pronounced. For example, poor memorization is possible not due to illness, but as a result of poor auditory memory, as can be seen from the memorization of visually perceived. This idea enriched the principle of correlating the results of the study of sick and healthy people. A natural experiment developed by A.F. Lazursky for the needs of pedagogical psychology was introduced into the clinic. It was used in the course of organizing the leisure of patients, their activities and entertainment - for a special purpose, counting problems, rebuses, riddles, tasks to fill in letters, syllables, etc., missing in the text, were offered. Thus, pathopsychology already had all the signs necessary for approval its scientific independence as a branch of psychological science: the subject of research is mental disorders; methods - the whole arsenal of psychological methods; the conceptual apparatus is the apparatus of psychological science. Another thing is what content was invested in the concept of the psyche by representatives of various psychological currents. In the school of V. M. Bekhterev, broad development prospects were outlined, theoretical and applied aspects of the emerging industry were outlined. Communication with psychiatry was carried out through participation in the reconstruction of a psychopathological syndrome characteristic of various mental illnesses. Experimental studies were used in solving problems of differential diagnosis and in monitoring the dynamics of a mental disorder during treatment. They helped to penetrate the mechanisms of mental disorder. So, V. M. Bekhterev experimentally proved that in the appearance and localization of hallucinations in patients, their orientation activity plays a role - anxious listening, peering; demonstrated the affinity of hallucinations with illusions. In the school of V. M. Bekhterev, the development of the foundations of psychoreflex therapy began. “By analogy with the physical method of strengthening a sick organism,” A. V. Ilyin wrote, “psychological experience will make it possible to find a way, if not for relative recovery, then at least to maintain the patient’s fading psyche.” As a method of treating hysterical anesthesia and paralysis, obsessive states and pathological inclinations, the "education" of combination-motor reflexes was used, which displaced pathological reflexes; work was carried out to raise mental activity through a certain dosage of mental labor in the form of reading and note-taking and other forms of mental activities for adults. Therapy of this kind was connected with curative pedagogy, but the actual psychological methods played a very modest role in it. The specific participation of psychologists in the construction general principles and the creation of specific methodological methods of psychotherapeutic influence begins to emerge in Soviet pathopsychology only in our time. Pathopsychological methods were used in children's and forensic examinations. V. M. Bekhterev and N. M. Shchelovanov wrote that the data of pathological psychology make it possible to almost unmistakably recognize mentally incompetent schoolchildren in order to allocate them to special institutions for the retarded. The practice of forensic medical examination generated a need for research at the intersection of pathological and individual psychology which had not only practical but also theoretical value. Research was also planned at the intersection of pathopsychology with social psychology. "The influence of patients on each other and the wide area of ​​normal suggestibility and imitation among healthy people are extremely interesting questions for both the psychiatrist and the psychologist; this issue deserves the full attention of experimental psychology, collective psychology, sociology, pedagogy and criminal anthropology" . It is of practical interest for setting the case in schools, hospitals, in the fight against neurosis and psychosis. It is interesting that in the school of V. M. Bekhterev there was a problem of the relationship between the development and decay of the psyche, which was resolved much later, on the theoretical foundation of the works of L. S. Vygotsky (B. V. Zeigarnik. B. S. Bratus, M. A. Kareva, S. Ya. Rubinstein, V. V. Lebedinsky). So, M. Marzhetsky wrote about the temptation of comparing data obtained by "observation and experiments on children with data obtained in work on the mentally ill" . Such work was carried out by L. S. Pavlovskaya, showing the heterogeneity of "decay" in two groups of patients - idiots and those with juvenile dementia - and the qualitative difference in their solutions to experimental problems compared to the solution of tasks that were beyond their strength due to lack of knowledge in children of the fourth year of life ". In "M. Bekhterev did not consider the study of the psyche of the mentally ill to be the key to understanding the inner world of the healthy. From the norm to pathology, in order to return the patient to neuropsychic health, this should be the way of the psychiatrist's thoughts. Therefore, in the practice of training a neuropathologist and psychiatrist, and in scientific In the psychiatric searches of the school of V. M. Bekhterev, the psychology of a normal person occupied an honorable place. Valuable thoughts on the importance of general psychological preparation were expressed by K. I. Povarnin: normal psychology. ... With such an attitude towards psychological research, it is difficult to expect satisfactory results from them. ... After all, the spiritual life of a person is the most complex object of study in all of nature and requires a skillful and careful approach, fully armed with psychological knowledge. "Insufficient psychological preparation can lead to gross errors - a simplified view of mental phenomena, incorrect conclusions. A complex psychological reality in which all components are merged together, the experimenter must skillfully reorganize, bringing to the fore the phenomenon under study.Knowledge of psychology is necessary both when choosing a research method and when analyzing the results.In addition to theoretical knowledge, researchers need practical training: "Skill in work, the ability to approach the subject, systematic conducting an experiment, an infinite number of little things that are omitted in a theoretical presentation, but extremely important for the case, can only be learned in practice ". It is necessary to be able to keep a record, record the results, distribute the sequence in time and the duration of the experiments, etc. K. I. Povarni n noted that "science cannot get rid of works that discredit the experimental psychological method" as long as insufficiently trained experimenters are engaged in research. in Russia. That is why V. M. Bekhterev and his collaborators are given so much attention in this book. The second major center of domestic psychiatry, in which experimental psychology developed, was the psychiatric clinic of S. S. Korsakov, organized in 1887 at the medical faculty of Moscow University. The psychological laboratory of the clinic was headed by A. A. Tokarsky. Under his editorship, "Notes of a Psychological Laboratory" was published, the significant content of which was student research. Like all representatives of progressive trends in psychiatry, S. S. Korsakov was of the opinion that only knowledge of the basics of psychological science makes it possible to correctly understand the decay of the mental activity of a mentally ill person. It is no coincidence that he began reading the course of psychiatry with a presentation of the foundations of psychology. Followers of S. S. Korsakov adhered to similar traditions: V. P. Serbsky, V. A. Gilyarovsky and others. They believed that psychological preparation was necessary for a doctor of any specialty. S. S. Korsakov even petitioned in 1889 to establish a special department of psychology at the medical faculty. However, it did not receive the support of the university administration.S. S. Korsakov and his collaborators were the organizers and participants of the Moscow Psychological Society. S. S. Korsakov himself was the chairman of this society. The works that came out of his clinic made a valuable contribution to psychological science - to understanding the mechanisms of memory and its disorders, the mechanisms and disorders of thinking. Thus, the world-famous "Korsakov's syndrome" gave new ideas about the temporal structure of human memory, laid the foundation for dividing the types of memory into long-term and short-term. In his work "On the Psychology of Microcephaly", S. S. Korsakov wrote about the absence of "the guiding function of the mind" in idiots, which makes human actions meaningful and expedient. An analysis of the structure of dementia in the work of A. A. Tokarsky "On Stupidity" led to the idea that disorders of the intellectual activity of patients are not reduced to the decay of individual abilities, but represent complex forms of violations of all purposeful mental activity. A number of meetings of the Moscow Society of Psychologists were devoted to familiarization with methods of psychological research, with works on experimental psychological diagnostics mental illness . The book by A. N. Bernshtein "Clinical methods of psychological research of the mentally ill" and "Atlas for the experimental psychological study of personality" by F. G. Rybakov aroused great interest. The work of G. I. Rossolimo "Psychological profiles. A method for the quantitative study of psychological processes in normal and pathological states. It attempted to turn psychology into an exact science - it proposed a certain system of examination and assessment on a 10-point scale of mental processes. As a result, an individual curve (profile) was obtained, characterizing the level of the "primary", innate, and "secondary", acquired mind. These were the first attempts at test trials, and G. I. Rossolimo, with his positive aspirations, was one of the founders of pedology in Russia, the methodological and practical failure of which was exposed in the 1930s. and received a critical conclusion in the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of July 4, 1936. As a rule, the leading psychoneurologists of pre-revolutionary Russia were the conductors of the advanced ideas of psychology and contributed to its development in the scientific and organizational direction. They were members of scientific psychological societies, editors and authors of psychological journals. After the Great October Socialist Revolution, it was at the psychoneurological congresses that the first reports were made by Soviet psychologists who advocated the construction of Marxist psychology, K. N. Kornilov and V. M. Bekhterev (at I and II All-Russian congresses on psychoneurology in 1923 and 1924); L. S. Vygotsky spoke for the first time at the II Congress, raising his voice against the mechanistic emasculation of the mental image from the psychology. This situation largely determined the nature of pathopsychological research and the path of their further development. The close connection with clinical practice and the tendency to theoretically comprehend the obtained facts saved pathopsychologists already at that time from bare empiricism and speculative constructions, which are still characteristic of the pathopsychology of many foreign countries. The development of pathopsychology went in line with the general development of psychology as a science built on the foundation of Marxist-Leninist philosophy. The formation of pathopsychology as a special field of knowledge was greatly influenced by the ideas of the outstanding Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky: 1) the human brain has different organization principles than the brain animal; 2) the development of higher mental functions is not predetermined by the morphological structure of the brain, they arise not as a result of the maturation of brain structures alone, but are formed in vivo by appropriating the experience of mankind in the process of communication, training, and education; 3) the defeat of the same zones of the cortex has a different significance at different stages of mental development. The theoretical ideas of L. S. Vygotsky, which were further developed in the works of his students and collaborators A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, L. I. Bozhovich, A. V. Zaporozhets, largely determined the path of pathopsychological and neuropsychological research in our country. L. S. Vygotsky himself led the pathopsychological laboratory at the Moscow Department of VIEM on the basis of the clinic. S. S. Korsakov, where psychologists G. V. Birenbaum, B. V. Zeigarnik and others worked. Levin (on the relationship between intellect and affect). Experimental studies led by L. S. Vygotsky marked the beginning of a multilateral study of the decay of thinking by B. V. Zeigarnik and her colleagues in the pathopsychological laboratory of the Institute of Psychiatry of the Ministry of Health of the RSFSR and Moscow State University. There is no need to further describe the development of Soviet psychology in historical terms, since a meaningful description of its achievements is presented in the corresponding chapters of the book. We will name only the main centers in which pathopsychological studies were carried out. This is the Psychoneurological Institute. V. M. Bekhterev and Leningrad State University, where for several decades research in pathopsychology was led by V. N. Myasishchev. In accordance with the traditions of the school of V. M. Bekhterev, on a new methodological basis, in line with the theory of relations of V. N. Myasishchev, research was carried out in various areas of medical psychology. In these studies, the best traditions of the school of V. M. Bekhterev were continued - a holistic approach to personality and intransigence towards functionalism: "The psychology of impersonal processes should be replaced by the psychology of an active personality, or personality in activity." study of the influence of the attitude of patients to work on their performance. On the basis of these studies, V. N. Myasishchev put forward the position that a violation of working capacity should be considered as the main manifestation of a person's mental illness and that the indicator of working capacity serves as one of the criteria for the patient's mental state. The works of the Leningrad school of pathopsychologists of this period have not yet lost their relevance both in terms of content and experimental methods. Pathopsychological studies of disorders of cognitive activity and the motivational sphere were widely developed in the laboratory of the Central Institute of Psychiatry of the Ministry of Health of the RSFSR on the basis of the Psychiatric Hospital. P. B. Gannushkina (B. V. Zeigarnik, S. Ya. Rubinstein, T. I. Tepenitsyna, Yu. F. Polyakov, V. V. Nikolaeva). A lot of work is being done on pathopsychology at the Center for Mental Health of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (Yu. F. Polyakov, T. K. Meleshko, V. P. Kritskaya, N. V. Kurek, etc.). The social aspect of pathopsychological research is presented in the psychological laboratory of the Central scientific research institute for the examination of the ability to work and the organization of work of disabled people, created for the first time in the world in the USSR (V. M. Kogan, E. A. Korobkova, I. N. Dukelskaya, etc.). In line with the theory of D. N. Uznadze, there were also studies of set disorders in various forms of mental illness by psychologists and psychiatrists of Georgia continue to be carried out. M. V. Lomonosov at the psychological department of the Faculty of Philosophy. At present, such courses have been introduced into the curricula of all faculties or departments of psychology of universities in the country. In recent years, the importance of pathopsychology in psychocorrective work, which is carried out in various types of psychological services, has grown: "helplines", "Family Service", etc. Pathopsychologists take part in group psycho-correction (V. M. Bekhterev Psychoneurological Institute, the Clinic of Neurosis, a number of psychiatric hospitals, etc.). The network of laboratories for the restoration of both individual impaired functions, and the ability to work of sick people. The participation of psychologists is now becoming not only necessary, but often the leading factor both in diagnostic work and in the field of prevention and psychocorrection of mental disorders. Pathopsychological research in children's neuropsychiatric institutions has received particular development. Techniques are being developed to facilitate the early diagnosis of mental retardation; analysis of complex pictures of underdevelopment in childhood is carried out in order to search for additional differential diagnostic signs and symptoms; using the position of L. S. Vygotsky about the "zone of proximal development", pathopsychologists develop methods of "learning experiment" aimed at identifying prognostic important signs of learning in children (S. Ya. Rubinshtein, V. V. Lebedinsky, A. Ya. Ivanova, E S. Mandrusova and others). Methods of gaming psycho-correction are being developed (A. S. Spivakovskaya, I. F. Rapokhina, R. A. Kharitonov, L. M. Khripkova). The role of pathopsychologists in the field of labor, forensic psychiatric and forensic psychological examinations has significantly increased ... The rapid growth of research and practical work in the field of experimental pathopsychology contributes to the fact that sections are created at the scientific societies of psychologists, uniting and coordinating research in the field of pathopsychology. At the all-Union congresses of the country's psychologists, the reports of pathopsychologists were widely presented, which concentrated around the following problems: 1) the importance of pathopsychology for the theory of general psychology; 2) problems of psycho-correction; 3) pathology of cognitive activity and personality. Similar symposiums were organized at international congresses of psychologists (1966 - Moscow, 1969 - London, 1972 - Tokyo, 1982 - Leipzig). Thus, an applied field of psychology is currently developing, which has its own subject and its own methods - experimental pathopsychology.

The history of pathopsychology is connected with the development of psychiatry, neurology and experimental psychology.

At the end of the XIX century. psychology began to gradually lose the character of a speculative science, in its research methods of natural science began to be used. The experimental methods of W. Wundt and his students penetrated into psychiatric clinics - into the clinic of E. Kraepelin (1879), into the largest psychiatric clinic in France in the Salpêtrière (1890), where P. Janet held the position of head of the laboratory for more than 50 years; experimental psychological laboratories were also opened in psychiatric clinics in Russia - in the laboratory of V. M. Bekhterev in Kazan (1886), then in the laboratory of V. F. Chizh in Yuryev, I. A. Sikorsky in Kyiv, etc.

Pathopsychology as an independent branch of psychological science began to take shape at the beginning of the 20th century. So, in 1904, V. M. Bekhterev writes that the latest advances in psychiatry were largely due to the clinical study of the patient’s mental disorders and formed the basis of a special section of knowledge - pathological psychology; it has already helped to solve many psychological problems, and in the future, most likely, it will provide even more help.

It was in the works of V. M. Bekhterev that the most clear ideas about the subject and tasks of pathopsychology at the initial stages of its formation were contained, namely, the study of abnormal manifestations of the mental sphere, since they illuminate the tasks facing the psychology of normal people. Courses in general psychopathology and pathological psychology were taught at the Psychoneurological Institute organized by V. M. Bekhterev. In the literature of those years, it is referred to as "pathological psychology" (VM Bekhterev, 1907).

In one of the first generalizing works on pathopsychology, Psychopathology as Applied to Psychology, the Swiss psychiatrist G. Sterring wrote that a change in one or another constituent element of mental life as a result of an illness makes it possible to find out in which processes it takes part and what significance it has for phenomena. , which include. Pathological material contributes to the formulation of new problems in general psychology, thereby contributing to its development; in addition, pathological phenomena can serve as a criterion in the evaluation of psychological theories.

Thus, at the very beginnings of the new branch of psychological science, when specific material had not yet been accumulated to a sufficient extent, scientists were already aware of its significance as a science applied to psychiatry. In the preface to the Russian edition of G. Shterring's work (1903), V. M. Bekhterev expressed the idea that pathological manifestations of mental activity are deviations and modifications of the normal manifestations of mental activity, obeying the same laws.

In the 20s. 20th century works on medical psychology by well-known foreign psychiatrists appear: "Medical Psychology" by E. Kretschmer, which interprets the problems of decay and development from the standpoint of constitutionalism, and "Medical Psychology" by P. Janet, in which the author dwells on the problems of psychotherapy.

The development of domestic pathopsychology was distinguished by the presence of strong natural science traditions. IM Sechenov attached great importance to the convergence of psychology and psychiatry. In a letter to M. A. Bokova in 1876, he announced that he was starting to create medical psychology - his "swan song" - and stated the fact that psychology was becoming the basis of psychiatry. The scientist - in particular, his work "Reflexes of the brain" (1863) - had a significant impact on the formation of its principles and methods. However, the founder of the pathopsychological trend in Russia was not I. M. Sechenov, but V. M. Bekhterev, who organized extensive experimental psychological studies of mental disorders.

The representative of the reflex concept, V. M. Bekhterev, expelled introspection from the sphere of science, declaring the objective method the only scientific method, which was his merit during the period of the dominance of subjective-idealistic psychology. But, as you know, the logic of the fight against introspective psychology led V. M. Bekhterev to abandon not only the use of psychological terminology, but also attempts to penetrate the subjective world, to the creation of reflexology, and this could not but affect the pathopsychological studies of his students and employees: the reflexological principle deprived the study of the actual psychological analysis of the objective manifestations of the psyche. Therefore, the protocol records of the works of the school of V. M. Bekhterev, rather than their analysis itself, are of interest: an objective study required, as far as possible, to cover the entire set of factors associated with the external manifestation of the neuropsyche, as well as the conditions accompanying them.

In addition, most pathological studies were carried out in the pre-reflex period of V. M. Bekhterev's work, in the laboratory and clinic for mental and nervous diseases of the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg.

In the works of the school of V. M. Bekhterev, rich concrete material was obtained on the features of associative activity, thinking, speech, attention, mental performance in different categories of patients compared with healthy people of the appropriate age, gender and education; this material is of interest as a historical fact of the "activity" approach to mental phenomena.

The departure from one's own psychological analysis actually contradicted the principle of the personal approach put forward by V. M. Bekhterev, according to which the personality of the patient and his attitude to the experiment are taken into account during the experiment, the smallest details are taken into account - starting with facial expressions and ending with the patient's remarks and behavior. This contradiction led to the fact that, contrary to the principles of reflexology, psychological analysis penetrated the concrete studies of representatives of the school of V. M. Bekhterev. An example is the work of M. I. Astvatsaturov, “On the Manifestation of Negativity in Speech,” published in 1907. The speech of the patient in this study is analyzed in the system of holistic behavior, the features of speech in the experimental conversation are compared with the speech of the patient in other circumstances, it is emphasized that similar speech reactions may have a different nature.

The principle of qualitative analysis of violations of psychological activity, adopted at the school of V. M. Bekhterev, has become a tradition in Russian psychology.

V. M. Bekhterev, S. D. Vladychko, V. Ya. Anifimov and other representatives of the school developed many methods for the experimental psychological study of the mentally ill, some of them (the method of comparing concepts, defining concepts) were among the most used in Soviet pathopsychology .

The requirements for methods formulated by V. M. Bekhterev and S. D. Vladychko have retained their significance for modern science:

• o simplicity (to solve experimental problems, subjects should not have special knowledge, skills);
• o portability (the ability to study directly at the patient's bedside, outside the laboratory environment);
• o preliminary testing of the methodology on a large number of healthy people of the appropriate age, gender, education.

A prominent role in determining the direction of domestic experimental psychology was played by a student of V. M. Bekhterev - A. F. Lazursky, head of the psychological laboratory at the Psychoneurological Institute founded by V. M. Bekhterev, organizer of his own psychological school. In the preface to A. F. Lazursky's book "Psychology General and Experimental," L. S. Vygotsky wrote that A. F. Lazursky belongs to those researchers who were on the path of turning empirical psychology into a scientific one.

The scientist made a great contribution to the development of the methodology of pathopsychology. A natural experiment developed by him for the needs of pedagogical psychology was introduced into the clinic. It was used in organizing the leisure of patients, their occupations and work activities.

A significant stage in the development of pathopsychology was the work of G. I. Rossolimo "Psychological profiles. A method for the quantitative study of psychological processes in normal and pathological conditions" (1910), which became widely known in Russia and abroad. This was one of the first attempts at test research: a system was proposed for examining mental processes and evaluating them on a 10-point scale. This was another step towards the transformation of pathopsychology into an exact science, although in the future the proposed approach turned out to be insufficiently consistent for solving the problems of pathopsychological research.

The second center in which clinical psychology developed was the psychiatric clinic of S. S. Korsakov in Moscow. In this clinic, in 1886, the second psychological laboratory in Russia was organized, which was headed by

A. A. Tokarsky. Like all representatives of progressive trends in psychiatry, S. S. Korsakov was of the opinion that knowledge of the foundations of psychological science makes it possible to correctly understand the breakdown of the mental activity of a mentally ill person.

The works of the school of S. S. Korsakov contain provisions that make a valuable contribution to the theory of psychological science. So, the article by A. A. Tokarsky "On Stupidity" contains an interesting analysis of the structure of dementia, leads to the idea that the violations of the intellectual activity of patients are not reduced to the disintegration of individual abilities, that we are talking about complex forms of violations of all purposeful mental activity.

In 1911, a book by A. N. Bernshtein was published, devoted to the description of the methods of experimental psychological research; in the same year, F. E. Rybakov published his Atlas for the Experimental Psychological Study of Personality. Thus, by the 20s. 20th century a new field of knowledge began to take shape - experimental pathopsychology.

In large psychiatric clinics of the Old and New Worlds at the end of the 19th century. psychological laboratories began to be organized - E. Kraepelin in Germany (1879), P. Janet in France (1890). Experimental psychological laboratories were also opened in psychiatric clinics in Russia - the second in Europe laboratory of V. M. Bekhterev in Kazan (1885), then in St. Petersburg, laboratories of S. S. Korsakov in Moscow (1886), I. A. Sikorsky in Kiev , P. I. Kovalevsky in Kharkov. A number of laboratories were organized in the USA and England.

Experimental psychological methods were developed in laboratories for studying disorders of mental processes in people who had suffered certain diseases. At the same time, to compare the results, the features of the psyche of healthy people were studied. Since in Russia the official psychological science stubbornly held on to the introspective method, remaining in line with philosophical knowledge, psychiatrists turned out to be the first experimental psychologists.

At the beginning XX in. researchers of mental activity report isolating a special branch of knowledge - pathological psychology. At this stage, scientists do not yet distinguish between the concepts of "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology". So, A. Gregor (1910) writes: "Experimental psychopathology studies the performance of mental functions under abnormal conditions created by a disease process underlying mental illness."

The confusion of these terms occurred due to the lack of a clear differentiation of the tasks of psychology and psychiatry during the period of the initial accumulation of factual material, in specific studies of mental anomalies, especially since researchers, as a rule, combined both a psychiatrist and a psychologist in one person.

The clearest idea of ​​the subject and tasks of pathopsychology at the dawn of its formation was contained in the works of V. M. Bekhterev: pathological psychology, which has already led to the resolution of many psychological problems. Naming pathological psychology among the branches of "objective psychology", the scientist defined its subject: "... the study of abnormal manifestations of the mental sphere, since they illuminate the tasks of the psychology of normal persons." Deviations and modifications of the normal manifestations of mental activity, according to V. M. Bekhterev, are subject to the same basic laws as a healthy psyche. Thus, V. M. Bekhterev no longer identified the concepts of “pathopsychology” and “psychopathology”. In the Psycho-Neurological Institute he organized, courses in general psychopathology and pathological psychology were taught simultaneously, i.e., different disciplines stood behind them.

At the very origins of the emerging new section of psychology, many domestic and foreign scientists noted that its significance goes beyond the science applied to psychiatry.

At the same time, mental disorders were considered as an experiment of nature, affecting mostly complex mental phenomena that at this stage were not studied by the methods of psychology. At this time, experimental work was born on clinical materials. - “The disease turns into a subtle tool of analysis,” T. Ribot wrote. “She makes experiments for us that cannot be done in any other way.”

In one of the first generalizing works on pathopsychology, Psychopathology as Applied to Psychology, the Swiss psychiatrist H. Störring suggested that a change in one or another element of mental life as a result of an illness allows one to judge its significance and place in the composition of complex mental phenomena. Pathological material contributes to the formulation of new problems in psychology. In addition, pathopsychological phenomena can serve as a criterion for evaluating psychological theories.

Thus, studies of mental disorders in their very origins were considered by domestic and foreign scientists in line with psychological knowledge. At the same time, the great importance of experimental psychological research for solving the problems of psychiatry was recognized. Thus, in connection with studies of mental impairments by E. Krepelin and his collaborators, V. Henri pointed out that experimental psychology provides methods that allow you to notice minor changes in the state of the patient's mental functions, “monitor the course of the disease step by step”, observing positive or negative the impact of treatments. Doctors usually see only major changes that do not make it possible to fine-tune the treatment process.

In the 20s. The works of well-known foreign psychiatrists appeared in the 20th century: “Medical Psychology” by E. Kretschmer and “Medical Psychology” by P. Janet, which are an attempt to systematize the accumulated knowledge in pathopsychology.

In the future, a new area of ​​psychological science developed under the influence of various trends at the intersection of medicine and psychology.

The development of domestic pathopsychology from the very beginning was distinguished by natural-science traditions. The formation of its principles and research methods was influenced by the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" (1863), which punched a "hole in the wall" separating physiology and psychology. I. M. Sechenov himself attached great importance to the fusion of psychology and psychiatry.

I. M. Sechenov’s successor on this path was V. M. Bekhterev, a psychiatrist by education, the founder of materialistically oriented experimental psychology and the founder of the pathopsychological trend in Russia. As a representative of the reflex concept, he considered the only scientific objective method for studying mental activity, requiring, if possible, to cover "the entire set of facts of the external manifestation of the neuropsyche and accompanying conditions ...".

In order to disassociate himself from introspectionism, V. M. Bekhterev abandoned the use of psychological terminology. The conceptual apparatus of the theory he developed gives the impression that the school of V. M. Bekhterev dealt exclusively with physiology. However, the design of the research was aimed mainly at the analysis of the performance of experimental tasks, and not at the features of neurodynamics. But in the course of the struggle with subjective-idealistic psychology, V. M. Bekhterev, who did not master dialectical materialism, came to the creation of “reflexology”, in which he mechanically split real activity: he absolutized its external manifestations and ignored the mental image. Activity was emasculated from its motivational component, which made it possible to see the subject of activity in a person.

Representatives of the school of V. M. Bekhterev developed many methods of experimental psychological research of the mentally ill. Some of them (the method of comparing concepts, defining concepts) are among the most used in Russian psychology. The works of this school reflect rich concrete material on disorders of perception and memory, mental activity, imagination, attention and mental performance.

The requirements for methods formulated by V. M. Bekhterev and S. D. Vladychko have retained their significance for modern science: simplicity (to solve experimental problems, subjects should not have special knowledge and skills) and portability (the ability to study directly at the patient’s bedside, outside the laboratory environment ).

The main principles of psychological research in the clinic at the school of V. M. Bekhterev were: the use of a set of techniques, a qualitative analysis of mental disorders, an individual approach, correlation of research results with data from healthy individuals of the appropriate age, gender, and education.

The use of a set of techniques - observation of the subject during the experiment, taking into account the characteristics of his behavior, the combination of various experimental methods for studying the same pathological phenomena - contributed to obtaining rich objective material.

The principle of qualitative analysis, put forward in the period when many researchers were fascinated by measuring methods (the approach to mental disorders as a quantitative decrease in certain abilities), has become traditional in Russian pathopsychology. But the theoretical platform of the scientist, especially during the development of reflexology, limited the analysis to the flow of external features of activity. And the recorded objective material was not brought to a truly psychological analysis.

However, some researchers, for example, K. I. Povarnin, pointed out the need to take into account the individual characteristics of patients, since sometimes defects are found where individual characteristics are actually pronounced. So, poor memorization is possible not due to illness, but as a result of poor auditory memory, as can be seen from the memorization of visually perceived. This idea enriched the principle of correlating the results of a study of sick and healthy people.

A natural experiment developed by A.F. Lazursky for the needs of pedagogical psychology was introduced into the clinic. It was used in the course of organizing the leisure of patients, their activities and entertainment - for a special purpose, counting problems, rebuses, riddles, tasks to fill in the missing letters, syllables, etc. were offered.

Thus, pathopsychology already in its origins had all the features necessary to establish its scientific independence as a branch of psychological science: the subject of research is mental disorders; methods - the whole arsenal of psychological methods; the conceptual apparatus is the apparatus of psychological science. Another thing is what content was invested in the concept of the psyche by representatives of various psychological currents. In the school of V. M. Bekhterev, broad prospects for development were outlined, theoretical and applied aspects of a new psychological direction were outlined.

Communication with psychiatry was carried out by researchers when recreating a psychopathological syndrome characteristic of various mental illnesses. Experimental studies were used in solving problems of differential diagnosis and in monitoring the dynamics of the condition of patients during treatment. This helped to penetrate into the mechanisms of mental disorder. So, V. M. Bekhterev experimentally proved that in the appearance and localization of hallucinations in patients, their orientation activity plays a role - anxious listening, peering; and also demonstrated the resemblance of hallucinations to illusions.

Pathopsychological methods have been used in pediatric and forensic examinations. V. M. Bekhterev and N. M. Shchelovanov wrote that the data of pathological psychology make it possible to almost unmistakably recognize mentally incompetent schoolchildren in order to allocate them to special institutions for the mentally retarded.

The practice of forensic medical examination generated a need for research at the intersection of pathological and individual psychology, which had not only practical but also theoretical value. Research was also planned at the intersection of pathopsychology with social psychology. “The influence of patients on each other and the wide area of ​​normal suggestibility and imitation among healthy people are extremely interesting questions for both the psychiatrist and the psychologist; this issue deserves the full attention of experimental psychology, collective psychology, sociology, pedagogy and criminal anthropology,” wrote K.S. Agadzhanyants, a leading researcher in the study of the induction of mental illness.

Also in the school of V. M. Bekhterev, the problem of the relationship between the development and decay of the psyche was outlined, which found a solution much later, on the theoretical foundation of the works of L. S. Vygotsky, B. V. Zeigarnik, B. S. Bratus, M. A. Karev, S. Ya. Rubinshtein and V. V. Lebedinsky.

The second major center of domestic psychiatry, in which experimental pathopsychology developed, was the psychiatric clinic of S. S. Korsakov, organized in 1887 at the medical faculty of Moscow University. The psychological laboratory of the clinic, headed by A. A. Tokarsky, made a valuable contribution to understanding the mechanisms of memory and its disorders, the mechanisms and disorders of thinking. And the description of the manifestations of the so-called "Korsakov's syndrome" made it possible to form new ideas about the temporal structure of human memory, laid the foundation for the classification of such types of memory as long-term and short-term.

S. S. Korsakov and his collaborators were the organizers and participants of the Moscow Psychological Society, a number of meetings of which were devoted to familiarization with the methods of experimental psychological diagnosis of mental illness.

The works of G. I. Rossolimo “Psychological profiles. The method of quantitative study of psychological processes in normal and pathological states "and A. N. Bernshtein" Clinical methods of psychological research of the mentally ill. These were the first attempts at test trials.

The development of pathopsychology as a special field of knowledge was greatly influenced by the ideas of the outstanding psychologist L. S. Vygotsky: 1) the human brain has different organization principles than the animal brain; 2) the development of higher mental functions is not predetermined by the morphological structure of the brain, they arise not as a result of the maturation of brain structures alone, but are formed in vivo by appropriating the experience of mankind in the process of communication, training, and education; 3) the defeat of the same zones of the cortex has a different significance at different stages of mental development.

The theoretical ideas of L. S. Vygotsky, which were further developed in the works of his students and collaborators A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, L. I. Bozhovich, A. V. Zaporozhets, largely determined pathopsychological and neuropsychological research in our country.

Pathopsychological research in children's neuropsychiatric institutions has received particular development. Techniques have been developed that contribute to the early diagnosis of mental retardation; analysis of complex pictures of underdevelopment in childhood is carried out in order to search for additional differential diagnostic signs and symptoms; using the position of L. S. Vygotsky about the "zone of proximal development", pathopsychologists develop methods of "learning experiment" aimed at identifying prognostic important signs of learning, methods of game psychocorrection (A. S. Spivakovskaya, I. F. Rapokhina, R. A. Kharitonov, L. M. Khripkova). The role of pathopsychologists in the field of labor, forensic psychiatric and forensic psychological expertise has increased significantly.

The rapid growth of research and practical work in the field of experimental pathopsychology contributes to the fact that scientific societies of psychologists create sections that unite and coordinate research in the field of pathopsychology.

A few words about the Soviet, ambiguous period for the formation and development of pathopsychology, its relationship with medical psychology. The Decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On Pedological Perversions in the System of the People’s Commissariat of Education”, issued in 1936, if not stopped, then significantly distorted the development of psychology and its various fields both in scientific and practical activities for 40 years. This period, which ended with Gorbachev's liberalization and perestroika in the second half of the 1980s, was replete with indiscriminate criticism of various trends and schools of Western psychology, primarily the psychometric approach in psychodiagnostics. The state ban on the use of tests was combined with careful permission to use "domestic tests" in pathopsychology (S.Ya. Rubinshtein, 1971) and non-standardized "tests" in neuropsychology (A.R. Luria, 1973). On the pages of medical and psychological literature, a stormy controversy unfolded regarding the content of the concepts of "medical psychology" and "pathopsychology", attempts were made to replace the development of a broader direction, to which medical or clinical psychology belongs, to one of its sections with methodological "truncation" of the subject, goals and tasks. At the same time, it was noted that “domestic pathopsychology is original, has a higher degree of development compared to other sections of psychology” (B.D. Karvasarsky, 1982).

Pathopsychology gained rapid development during the Great Patriotic War due to the rich empirical material accumulated in the course of neuropsychological and pathopsychological studies, observations of wounded soldiers with local lesions of the cerebral cortex

Most researchers now believe that the most developed areas of medical or clinical psychology, which includes several sections, are pathopsychology, which arose at the intersection of psychology, psychopathology and psychiatry, the prominent representatives of which are B.V. Zeigarnik (1971, 1986), S.Ya. Rubinstein (1976), Yu.F. Polyakov (1974), as well as neuropsychology, formed on the basis of psychology, neurology and neurosurgery (A.R. Luria, 1962-1977, E.D. Khomskaya, 1976, L.S. Tsvetkova, 1982, etc.).

A promising direction in pathopsychology is the direction, the purpose of which is the development of pathopsychological syndromes, i.e. revealing violations in the structure of mental activity and establishing the degree of changes in mental processes (intellectual, perceptual, mnestic, etc.). As an example, we can cite the studies of Yu.F. Polyakov and his staff. They relate to the violations of actualization of information from past experience revealed in patients with schizophrenia, which results in a restructuring of perceptual and other mental processes, which has a pathogenetic significance in the formation of mental disorders in this disease.

The development of pathopsychology as an applied psychological science, which began in a psychiatric clinic, has now expanded and turned out to be useful for the needs of therapeutic, surgical and other clinics, in psychotherapeutic practice, professional hygiene, etc.

test questions

Why were the first studies in line with Russian pathopsychology carried out by psychiatrists and not by psychologists?

With what scientific disciplines is pathopsychology most associated in the process of its formation?

Which major pathopsychologists do you know?

In which medical institutions is the activity of a pathopsychologist useful?