The formation of the ancient Russian state by the first Russian princes briefly. Cheat sheet: The formation of the Old Russian state

The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was a logical result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society. Most scientists support the idea of ​​Academician B.D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations has become the leading trend in the socio-economic development of Ancient Russia since the 9th century.

In historical science, back in the 18th century, a dispute arose about the formation of statehood among the Eastern Slavs. For a long time, the Norman theory was considered generally accepted. Its authors were German scientists G. Bayer, G. Miller and A. Schlozer, who were invited to Russia in the 18th century. Historians - Normanists refer to "The Tale of Bygone Years" - the oldest Russian chronicle. The chronicle legend says that in 862, in order to end the civil strife, the inhabitants of Veliky Novgorod sent ambassadors to Scandinavia with a proposal to the Varangian leaders to become their rulers. "Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it." Three Varangian brothers responded to the invitation: Rurik began to rule in Novgorod, Sineus in Beloozero and Truvor in Izborsk. From this event, the creation of the state among the Eastern Slavs began.

An ardent opponent of this theory was M.V. Lomonosov. The very fact of the presence of the Varangian squads, by which, as a rule, they understand the Scandinavians, in the service of the Slavic princes, their participation in the life of Russia is beyond doubt, as well as the constant mutual ties between the Scandinavians and Russia. However, there are no traces of any noticeable influence of the Varangians on the economic and socio-political institutions of the Slavs, as well as on their language and culture. Historians have convincing evidence that there is every reason to assert that the Eastern Slavs had stable traditions of statehood long before the calling of the Varangians. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The actions of individual major personalities, conquests or other external circumstances determine the concrete manifestations of this process. Consequently, the fact of calling the Varangians, if it really took place, speaks not so much about the emergence of Russian statehood, but about the origin of the princely dynasty. The established state was at the very beginning of its journey: primitive communal traditions retained their place in all spheres of life of the Eastern Slavic society for a long time.

The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus. At the head of the Kievan state was a prince, who was called the Grand Duke; princes dependent on him ruled locally. The Grand Duke was not an autocrat; most likely, he was the first among equals. The Grand Duke ruled on behalf of his closest relatives and inner circle - a large boyars, formed from the top of the prince's squad and the nobility of Kyiv. The title of the Grand Duke was inherited in the Rurik family. After the death of the Grand Duke, the throne of Kyiv was occupied by the eldest son, and after his death, the rest of the sons took turns.

In the state structure of Kievan Rus, along with the monarchical branch of power, there was also a democratic, "parliamentary" branch - the veche. The entire population participated in the meeting, except for the slaves; there were cases when the veche concluded an agreement with the prince, a “row”. Sometimes the princes were forced to swear allegiance to the veche, especially in Novgorod. The main force on which power relied was the army. It consisted of two parts: from the prince's squad and the people's militia.

The squad formed the basis of the army. According to the Varangian custom, the warriors fought on foot and were armed with swords and axes. The people's militia was convened in the event of large military campaigns or to repel an enemy attack. Part of the militia acted on foot, part mounted horses. The people's militia was commanded by a thousand-man, appointed by the prince.

In the development of the Old Russian state, three main stages are traditionally distinguished:

1. Early feudal (IX - X centuries);

2. The heyday of the Old Russian state (late X - XI centuries);

3. Feudal fragmentation. The collapse of the state (late XI-XII centuries).

During the first stage, the East Slavic tribes joined the Old Russian state. At the time of formation, Kievan Rus stretched in a narrow strip along the Dnieper, and the process of conquering all the East Slavic tribes dragged on for another century. The Kyiv prince Oleg (882-912), according to the Tale of Bygone Years, conquers the streets, Tivertsy, Drevlyans. Russia's trading partner was the mighty Byzantine Empire. Kyiv princes repeatedly made campaigns against their southern neighbor. So, back in 860, Askold and Dir undertook this time a successful campaign against Byzantium. Even more famous was the agreement between Russia and Byzantium, concluded by Oleg. In 907 and 911 Oleg with an army twice successfully fought under the walls of Constantinople (Tsargrad). As a result of these campaigns, treaties were concluded with the Greeks, drawn up, as the chronicler wrote, "for two charatia", that is, in two copies - in Russian and Greek. This confirms that Russian writing appeared long before the adoption of Christianity.

After Oleg, Igor reigned (912-945). During his reign in 944, an agreement with Byzantium was confirmed on less favorable terms. Under Igor, the first popular indignation described in the annals took place - the uprising of the Drevlyans in 945. The collection of tribute in the Drevlyansk lands was carried out by the Varangian Sveneld with his detachment, whose enrichment caused a murmur in Igor's squad. Igor was killed by his passion for money-grubbing. He decided to take a double tribute from the Drevlyans, who had previously paid him regularly. The Drevlyans killed the prince's squad and captured the prince himself. Then they bent two trees, tied Igor to them and, releasing the trees, tore him in two.

After the death of Igor, the widow Olga and son Svyatoslav, who at that time was four years old, remained, so Princess Olga began to rule Russia. With the name of Princess Olga, the chronicle connects the holding in 946-947. a number of measures aimed at strengthening princely power within rural areas: the rationing of duties that received a regular character, the arrangement of churchyards as permanent centers for collecting tribute. Upon returning from her long journey to Byzantium, Olga officially transferred the reign to her son Svyatoslav. By that time, at the age of 16, he was already quite an adult and a very experienced young man. Svyatoslav conquered the Slavic tribe of the Vyatichi, who lived along the Oka, until then remained independent, went to the Khazars, defeated them, took their main city on the Don - Belaya Vezha. In 967, at the invitation of the Greek emperor Nicephorus, who sent him money, Svyatoslav went to the Danube Bulgarians, conquered their land and remained in it to live. In fact, Nikifor tried to push Russia against Bulgaria, and then one by one to subordinate them to his dictate. But Svyatoslav, on the contrary, helped the Bulgarians free themselves from Byzantine influence. The Greeks soon sensed a threat to the security of their empire. To distract Svyatoslav, Nicephorus provoked an attack by the Pechenegs on militarily weakened Kyiv. Svyatoslav returned to Kyiv and drove out the Pechenegs, but did not stay in Russia, but returned to Bulgaria, where, despite his extraordinary courage, he could not overpower the Greek army. Upon returning to Russia, he was killed by the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids in 972.

After the death of Svyatoslav, his eldest son Yaropolk became the prince of Kyiv, a Christian according to his convictions, but later he was forced to cede power to Vladimir. In 988, under Vladimir, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Christianity, with its idea of ​​the eternity of human life (mortal earthly life precedes the eternal stay in heaven or hell of the human soul after his death), asserted the idea of ​​equality of people before God. According to the new religion, the path to paradise is open to both the rich nobleman and the commoner, depending on the honest fulfillment of their duties on earth. The adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and the territorial unity of Kievan Rus. It was of great international importance, which consisted in the fact that Russia, having rejected "primitive" paganism, now became equal to other Christian countries, ties with which expanded significantly. Finally, the adoption of Christianity played a large role in the development of Russian culture, which was influenced by Byzantine, and through it, ancient culture.

A metropolitan appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople was placed at the head of the Russian Orthodox Church; separate regions of Russia were headed by bishops, to whom priests in cities and villages were subordinate.

The entire population of the country was obliged to pay a tax in favor of the church - "tithe" (the term comes from the size of the tax, which at first amounted to a tenth of the population's income). Subsequently, the size of this tax has changed, but its name has remained the same. In the hands of the church was the court, which was in charge of cases of anti-religious crimes, violations of moral and family norms. The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development. Vladimir was canonized by the church as a saint, and for his merits in the baptism of Russia, he is called Equal-to-the-Apostles.

In order to strengthen his power in various parts of the vast state, Vladimir appointed his sons as governors in various cities. After the death of Vladimir, a fierce struggle for power began between his sons.

One of the sons of Vladimir, Svyatopolk (1015-1019), seized power in Kyiv and declared himself a Grand Duke. By order of Svyatopolk, three of his brothers were killed - Boris Rostovsky, Gleb Muromsky and Svyatoslav Drevlyansky.

Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who occupied the throne in Novgorod, understood that he was also in danger. He decided to oppose Svyatopolk, who called on the help of the Pechenegs. Yaroslav's army consisted of Novgorodians and Varangian mercenaries. The internecine war between the brothers ended with the flight of Svyatopolk to Poland, where he soon died. Yaroslav Vladimirovich established himself as the Grand Duke of Kyiv (1019-1054).

In 1024, Yaroslav was opposed by his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky. As a result of this strife, the brothers divided the state into two parts: the area east of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav, and the territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav. After the death of Mstislav in 1035, Yaroslav became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.

The time of Yaroslav is the heyday of Kievan Rus, which has become one of the strongest states in Europe. In 1036, near the walls of Kyiv, Yaroslav finally defeated the Pecheneg hordes, and since then they have ceased to be any noticeable threat to the Russian lands. In memory of this great victory, the church of the Cathedral of St. Sophia was built on the site of the decisive battle. By erecting a church in Kyiv similar to the largest church in the Orthodox world - the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople, Kyiv in the time of Yaroslav turned into one of the largest urban centers of the entire Christian world. The main entrance to the city was decorated with the magnificent Golden Gate. In Kyiv itself there were 400 churches, 8 markets and a lot of people. Kyiv has rightfully become the largest economic and political center of the state. It carried out extensive work on the correspondence and translation of books into Russian, teaching literacy.

To emphasize the power of Russia, its equality with Byzantium, Yaroslav, without agreement with the Patriarch of Constantinople, appointed the head of the church in Russia - the metropolitan. It was the Russian church leader Illarion Berestov, whereas earlier metropolitans were sent from Byzantium. Tradition links the compilation of Russkaya Pravda with the name of Yaroslav the Wise. This is a complex legal monument, based on the norms of customary law (unwritten rules that have developed as a result of their repeated, traditional application). For that time, the most important sign of the strength of a document was a legal precedent and a reference to antiquity. Although Russkaya Pravda is attributed to Yaroslav the Wise, many of its articles and sections were adopted later, after his death. Yaroslav owns only the first 17 articles of Russkaya Pravda (“Ancient Truth” or “Yaroslav's Truth”).

Pravda Yaroslava limited blood feuds to the immediate family. This suggests that the norms of the primitive system already existed under Yaroslav the Wise as remnants. Yaroslav's laws sorted out disputes between free people, primarily among the princely squad. Novgorod men began to enjoy the same rights as Kiev.

Russkaya Pravda speaks of various social classes of that time. Most of the population were free community members - "people", or simply "people". They united in a rural community - "rope". Verv had a certain territory, separate economically independent families stood out in it. The second large group of the population is smerds; it was the unfree or semi-free population of the princely domain. The third group of the population are slaves. They are known under different names: servants, serfs. Chelyad - an early name, serfs - later. "Russian Truth" shows the slaves completely disenfranchised. The slave had no right to be a witness at the trial; the owner was not responsible for his murder. Not only the slave was punished for escaping, but also everyone who helped him. Mass popular demonstrations swept through Kievan Rus in 1068-1072. The most powerful was the uprising in Kiev in 1068. It broke out as a result of the defeat suffered by the sons of Yaroslav (Yaroslavichi) - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod - from the Polovtsians. Uprisings of the late 60s - early 70s of the XI century. demanded vigorous action from the princes and boyars. "Russian Pravda" was supplemented by a number of articles called "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs" (in contrast to the first part of the code - "The Truth of Yaroslav"). "Pravda Yaroslavichi" abolished blood feuds and increased the difference in payment for the murder of various categories of the population, reflecting the state's concern for the protection of property, life and property of the feudal lords.

Since the 30s. 12th century Russia has already irreversibly entered a period of feudal fragmentation, which became a natural stage in the development of all major European states in the Middle Ages. If its early manifestations were still extinguished by the force of inertia, by the will of such prominent statesmen as Vladimir Monomakh and Mstislav, then after their departure from the historical arena, new economic, political, and social trends powerfully declared themselves.

By the middle of the XII century. Russia split into 15 principalities, which were only formally dependent on Kyiv. At the beginning of the XIII century. there were already about 50 of them. Russia during the XII century. became politically similar to a patchwork quilt.

Of course, one of the reasons for this state of statehood in Russia was the constant princely divisions of land between the Rurikovichs, their endless internecine wars and new redistribution of land. However, it was not political reasons that underlay this phenomenon. Within the framework of a single state, independent economic regions have developed over three centuries, new cities have grown, large patrimonial farms, possessions of monasteries and churches have arisen and developed. In each of these centers, behind the backs of the local princes stood the growing and united feudal clans - the boyars with their vassals, the rich elite of the cities, church hierarchies.

The formation of independent principalities within Russia took place against the backdrop of the rapid development of the productive forces of society, the progress of agriculture, handicrafts, domestic and foreign trade, and the increasing exchange of goods between individual Russian lands. The social structure of Russian society also became more complex, its layers in individual lands and cities became more defined: the large boyars, the clergy, merchants, artisans, the lower classes of the city, including serfs. Developed dependence on the landowners of rural residents. All this new Russia no longer needed the former early medieval centralization. Separate lands, differing from others in natural, economic conditions, became more and more isolated. For the new structure of the economy, other than before, the scale of the state was needed. Huge Russia, with its very superficial political cohesion, necessary primarily for defense against an external enemy, for organizing long-range campaigns of conquest, now no longer corresponded to the needs of large cities with their branched feudal hierarchy, developed trade and craft strata, the needs of patrimonials striving to have power, close to their interests - and not in Kyiv, and not even in the form of a Kyiv governor, but his own, close, here, on the spot, which could fully and resolutely defend their interests.

All this determined the shift of historical accents from the center to the periphery, from Kyiv to the centers of individual principalities. The loss of its historical role by Kyiv was to a certain extent connected with the movement of the main trade routes. In connection with the rapid growth of Italian cities and the activation of Italian merchants in southern Europe and the Mediterranean, ties between Western and Central Europe became closer. The Crusades brought the Middle East closer to Europe. These ties developed, bypassing Kyiv. In Northern Europe, German cities were gaining strength, to which Novgorod and other cities of the Russian north-west began to focus more and more. The former brilliance of the once glorious "path from the Varangians to the Greeks" has faded.

Centuries of intense struggle against the nomads could not pass without a trace for Kyiv and Kyiv land. This struggle exhausted the people's strength, slowed down the overall progress of the region. The advantage was given to those regions of the country that, although they were in less favorable natural conditions (Novgorod land, Rostov-Suzdal Rus), but did not experience such debilitating pressure from the nomads.

How to evaluate the collapse of Russia? From the point of view of general historical development, the political fragmentation of Russia is only a natural stage on the way to the future centralization of the country and the future economic and political rise already on a new civilizational basis. This is evidenced by the rapid growth of cities and patrimonial economy in individual principalities, and the entry of these practically independent states into the foreign policy arena: Novgorod and Smolensk later concluded their own agreements with the Baltic states, with German cities; Galich actively maintained diplomatic relations with Poland, Hungary and Rome. In each of these principalities-states, culture continued to develop, remarkable architectural structures were built, chronicles were created, literature and journalism flourished. The famous "Tale of Igor's Campaign" was born just at the time of this political collapse of the once united Russia.

Within the framework of the principalities-states, the Russian church was gaining strength. During these years, many remarkable literary, philosophical and theological creations came out of the circles of the clergy. And most importantly - in the conditions of the formation of new economic regions and the formation of new political entities, the peasant economy was steadily developing, new arable lands were being developed, there was an expansion and quantitative multiplication of estates, which for their time became the most progressive form of large and complex farming, although there was this is due to the labor of the dependent peasant population.

The political disintegration of Russia has never been complete. The centripetal forces were preserved, which constantly opposed the centrifugal forces. First, it was the power of the great Kyiv princes. Although sometimes ghostly, it existed, and even Yuri Dolgoruky, remaining in the far northeast, called himself the great prince of Kyiv. The Kiev principality, although formally, cemented all of Russia. Not without reason for the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the power and authority of the Kyiv prince stood on a high political and moral pedestal.

The all-Russian church also retained its influence. The Kyiv metropolitans were the leaders of the entire church organization. The Church, as a rule, advocated the unity of Russia, condemned the internecine wars of the princes, and played a great peacemaking role. The oath on the cross in the presence of church leaders was one of the forms of peace agreements between the warring parties.

A counterbalance to the forces of disintegration and separatism was the constantly existing external danger to the Russian lands from the side of the Polovtsians. On the one hand, the rival princely clans attracted the Polovtsians as allies and they ravaged the Russian lands, on the other hand, the idea of ​​unity of forces in the fight against an external enemy constantly lived in the all-Russian consciousness, the ideal of the prince - the guardian of the Russian land, which was Vladimir I and Vladimir Monomakh. No wonder the images of these two princes merged into one ideal image of the defender of the Russian land from evil enemies in Russian epics.

Among the fifteen principalities that were formed in the XII century. on the territory of Russia, the largest were: Kyiv with a center in Kyiv, Chernigov and Severskoe with centers in Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky, Novgorod with a center in Novgorod, Galicia-Volynskoe with a center in Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky, Vladimir-Suzdalskoe with a center in Vladimir-on-Klyazma.

Each of them occupied vast lands, the core of which was not only the historical territories of the still old tribal principalities, but also new territorial acquisitions, new cities that have grown in the lands of these principalities in recent decades.

Although the principality of Kiev lost its importance as the political center of the Russian lands, Kyiv retained its historical glory as the “mother of Russian cities”. It also remained the church center of the Russian lands. The Kiev principality was the center of the most fertile lands in Russia. The largest number of large patrimonial estates and the largest amount of arable land were located here. Thousands of artisans worked in Kyiv itself and the cities of the Kyiv land, whose products were famous not only in Russia, but also far beyond its borders. The Kiev principality occupied vast areas on the Right Bank of the Dnieper, almost the entire basin of the Pripyat River.

The death of Mstislav the Great in 1132 and the subsequent struggle for the throne of Kyiv between the Monomakhoviches and the Olgoviches became a turning point in the history of Kyiv. It was in the 30s and 40s. 12th century he irretrievably lost control over the Rostov-Suzdal land, where the energetic and power-hungry Yuri Dolgoruky ruled, over Novgorod and Smolensk, whose boyars themselves began to select princes for themselves. For the Kyiv land, the big European politics, long trips to the heart of Europe, to the Balkans, to Byzantium and to the East, are in the past.

The large principalities of the period of feudal fragmentation were the Chernigov and Seversk principalities. An attempt to isolate Chernigov was made under the son of Yaroslav the Wise Svyatoslav, and then under his son Oleg. But at that time, Kyiv still held the reins of government with a strong hand. When Vladimir Monomakh became the owner there, and then his son Mstislav, Chernigov dutifully followed the all-Russian policy. And yet every year the Chernihiv principality became more and more isolated. And it was not so much about the personal qualities, the ambition of Oleg Svyatoslavich and his energetic sons - the Olgovichi, but about the general economic and political features of the region. Chernihiv itself became one of the largest Russian cities. A powerful boyars formed here, based on patrimonial land ownership. There was a bishop here, majestic temples towered in the city, and first of all the Cathedral of the Savior, monasteries appeared. The Chernigov princes had strong squads experienced in battles. Trade relations of Chernigov merchants extended throughout Russia and beyond. There is news that they traded even in the markets of London. The structure of the Chernihiv Principality included many large and famous cities. Among them - Novgorod-Seversky (i.e., a new city founded in the land of the northerners), Putivl, Lyubech, Rylsk, Kursk, Starodub, Tmutarakan Ryazan. In the 40-50s. 12th century Seversk land, headed by Novgorod, which stood on the Desna River, partially separated from Chernigov.

The Chernigov Principality developed special relations at the time of the rule of the Olgovichi with the Polovtsy. Oleg of Chernigov was friends with the Polovtsy, and they often helped him in the fight against Vladimir Monomakh. 12th century authors more than once Oleg was blamed for the connection with the Polovtsy, although friendly and even allied relations with them (as well as wars) were characteristic of the policy of many Russian princes. And the point here is not only in the personal sympathies of Oleg and his descendants. The Chernihiv Principality has long included in its composition the lands up to the Taman Peninsula, which then became the place of the Polovtsian nomads. The steppe, the Polovtsy were traditional neighbors of the Chernigov princes, and they traditionally not only fought, but were friends with their neighbors.

After the death of Oleg, and then his brothers, power in Chernigov passed into the hands of Vsevolod Olgovich, other sons of Oleg "sat" in other cities of the Chernigov principality. It was then that Svyatoslav Olgovich, the father of the famous Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor, the hero of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, established himself in the Seversk land.

Throughout the second half of the XII century. Chernigov princes actively fought against the descendants of Monomakh for the throne of Kyiv, which, however, was increasingly losing its former significance. At first, success in this struggle accompanied the Monomakhoviches. But later, Vsevolod Olgovich, the eldest in the Rurik family, established himself in Kyiv, and now the Chernigov princes entrenched themselves in Kyiv for a long time.

Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. The oldest inhabitants of this wooded region were Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes, some of which were later assimilated by the Slavs. A favorable impact on the economic growth of this Zalessky land was exerted by the increased from the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Russia under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Russia was agriculture, which was carried out on the fertile outcrops of black soil among the forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade associated with the Volga route played a significant role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Mur, from the middle of the XII century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.

North-Eastern Russia began to rise under Vladimir Monomakh. Here he came to reign at the age of 12, sent by his father Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Since then, the Rostov-Suzdal land has firmly become part of the "fatherland" of the Monomakhoviches. At a time of difficult trials, at a time of severe defeats, the children and grandchildren of Monomakh knew that here they would always find help and support. Here they will be able to gain new strength for fierce political battles with their rivals. Here at one time Vladimir Monomakh sent one of his younger sons Yuri to reign.

As Yuri matured, as the senior princes passed away, the voice of the Rostov-Suzdal prince sounded louder in Russia and his claims to primacy in all-Russian affairs became more solid. And it was not only his irrepressible thirst for power, the desire for this superiority, for which he received the nickname Dolgoruky, but also the economic, political, cultural isolation of a vast region, which more and more sought to live according to its own will. This was especially true of large and wealthy northeastern cities. If the "old" cities - Rostov and especially Suzdal - were, in addition, strong in their boyar groups, and there the princes felt more and more uncomfortable, then in the new cities - Vladimir, Yaroslavl - they relied on the growing urban estates, the top of the merchant class, artisans , on dependent landowners who received land for service from the prince.

In the middle of the XII century. thanks mainly to Yuri Dolgoruky, the Rostov-Suzdal principality from a distant outskirts, which had previously dutifully sent its squads to help the Kyiv prince, turned into a vast independent principality that pursued an active policy.

Yuri Dolgoruky tirelessly fought with the Volga Bulgaria, which, at a time of worsening relations, tried to block Russian trade along the Volga route. He waged a confrontation with Novgorod for influence on adjacent and border lands. Already in the XII century. the rivalry between North-Eastern Russia and Novgorod was born, which later resulted in a sharp struggle between the Novgorod aristocratic republic and the rising Moscow. For many years, Yuri Dolgoruky also stubbornly fought for the mastery of the throne of Kyiv.

Participating in inter-princely strife, fighting with Novgorod, Yuri had an ally in the person of the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Olgovich, who was older than the Rostov-Suzdal prince and before him presented his rights to the Kyiv throne. Yuri helped him with the army, he himself undertook a successful campaign against the Novgorod lands. Svyatoslav did not win the Kyiv throne for himself, but conquered the Smolensk lands. And then both ally princes met for negotiations and for a friendly feast in the border town of Suzdal, Moscow. Yuri Dolgoruky invited his ally there, to a small fortress, and wrote to him: "Come to me, brother, to Moscow." On April 4, 1147, the allies met in Moscow. This is how Moscow was first mentioned in historical sources. But the activities of Yuri Dolgoruky are connected not only with this city. He built a number of other cities and fortresses. Among them - Zvenigorod, Dmitrov. In the 50s. 12th century Yuri Dolgoruky seized the throne of Kyiv, but soon died in Kyiv, in 1157.

In 1157, the throne in the Rostov-Suzdal principality was taken by the son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Yuryevich, born from a Polovtsian princess, Yuri's first wife. Andrei Yurievich was born around 1120, when his grandfather Vladimir Monomakh was still alive. Until the age of 30, the prince lived in the north. His father gave him the city of Vladimir-on-Klyazma, and it was there that Andrei spent his childhood and youth. He rarely visited the south, did not like Kyiv, vaguely imagined all the complexities of the dynastic struggle among the Rurikovichs. All his thoughts were connected with the north. Even during the life of his father, who, after mastering Kyiv, ordered him to live nearby in Vyshgorod, the independent Andrey Yuryevich, against the will of his father, went north to his native Vladimir. After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, the boyars of Rostov and Suzdal elected Andrei as their prince, seeking to establish their own dynastic line in the Rostov-Suzdal land and stop this order of things, when the great princes sent one or the other of their sons to these lands to reign.

However, Andrei immediately confused all their calculations. First of all, he drove his brothers from other Rostov-Suzdal tables, who "sat" in different cities. Among them was Vsevolod the Big Nest, famous in the future. Then Andrei removed the old boyars Yuri Dolgoruky from the affairs, disbanded his squad, which had turned gray in battles. The chronicler noted that Andrei sought to become "autocratic" in North-Eastern Russia.

On whom did Andrey Yuryevich rely in this struggle? First of all, on cities, urban estates. Similar aspirations were shown at that time by the rulers of some other Russian lands, for example Roman, and then Daniel of Galicia. He moved his residence to the young city of Vladimir; near the city in the village of Bogolyubovo, he built a magnificent white-stone palace, which is why he received the nickname "Bogolyubsky". Since that time, North-Eastern Russia can be called the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, after the name of its main cities.

In 1169, together with his allies, Andrei Bogolyubsky stormed Kyiv, expelled his cousin Mstislav Izyaslavich from there and gave the city to be plundered. Already by this he showed all his neglect in relation to the former Russian capital. Andrei did not leave the city behind him, but gave it to one of his brothers, and he returned to Vladimir. Later, Andrei undertook another campaign against Kyiv, but unsuccessfully. He fought, like Yuri Dolgoruky, with the Volga Bulgaria.

The actions of Andrei Bogolyubsky caused more and more irritation among the Rostov-Suzdal boyars. Their cup of patience was overflowing when, on the orders of the prince, one of his wife's relatives, a prominent boyar Stepan Kuchka, was executed, whose possessions were in the Moscow region, this area was then called Kuchkovo. Having seized the possessions of the executed boyar, Andrei ordered the construction of a fortified castle here. So the first fortress appeared in Moscow. As a result of a conspiracy of the nobility and representatives of the prince's inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yurievich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir).

The death of Andrei Bogolyubsky did not stop the process of centralization of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. When the boyars of Rostov and Suzdal tried to place Andrei's nephews on the throne and govern the principality behind their backs, the "lesser people" of Vladimir, Suzdal, Pereyaslavl, and other cities rose up and invited Mikhail, brother of Andrei Bogolyubsky, to the throne of Vladimir-Suzdal. His final victory in the difficult internecine struggle with his nephews meant the victory of the cities and the defeat of the boyars.

When Mikhail died in 1177 after a serious illness, Vsevolod Yurievich, the third son of Yuri Dolgoruky, again supported by the cities, took over his business.

In 1177, having defeated his opponents in an open battle near the city of Yuryev, he seized the Vladimir-Suzdal throne. The rebellious boyars were captured and imprisoned, their possessions confiscated. Ryazan, which supported the opponents of the prince, was captured, and the Ryazan prince was captured. Vsevolod received the nickname "Big Nest", as he had eight sons and eight grandchildren, not counting the female offspring. In his struggle against the boyars, Vsevolod the Big Nest relied not only on the cities, but also on the nobility, which matures every year, which appears in the sources under the name of “youths”, “swordsmen”, “virniki”, “grids”, “lesser squad” and served the prince for land, income, and other favors. This category of the population existed before, but now it is becoming more numerous and influential. With the increase in the importance of the grand duke's power in the once provincial principality, their role and influence also grew from year to year. They essentially carried the entire main public service: in the army, legal proceedings, embassy affairs, the collection of taxes and taxes, reprisals, palace affairs, and the management of the princely economy.

Having strengthened his position within the principality, Vsevolod began to exert increasing influence on the affairs of Russia: he interfered in the affairs of Novgorod, took possession of lands in the Kiev region, and completely subordinated the Ryazan principality to his influence. He successfully opposed the Volga Bulgaria. His campaign against the Volga in 1183 ended in a brilliant victory. Seriously ill in 1212, Vsevolod the Big Nest gathered his sons and bequeathed the throne to his eldest son Konstantin, who at that time was sitting in Rostov as his father's vicegerent. But Konstantin, who had already firmly connected his fate with the Rostov boyars, asked his father to leave him in this city, and move the throne there from Vladimir. This could disrupt the entire political situation in the principality. Sick Vsevolod went into a rage. With the support of his comrades-in-arms and the church, he handed over the throne to his second-oldest son, Yuri, and ordered him to remain in Vladimir and govern the entire North-Eastern Russia from here.

Soon Vsevolod died at the age of 64, having "sat" on the throne of the Grand Duke for 37 years. His successor Yuri did not immediately manage to get the better of his older brother. A new civil strife followed, which lasted 6 years, and only in 1218, after the death of Konstantin, Yuri Vsevolodovich managed to seize the throne. Thus, the old official tradition of inheriting power by seniority was finally violated, from now on the will of the Grand Duke - the "autocrat" became stronger than the former "old times". North-Eastern Russia took another step towards the centralization of power. In the struggle for power, Yuri, however, was forced to make compromises with his brothers. Vladimir-Suzdal Rus broke up into a number of destinies, where the children of Vsevolod were sitting. But the process of centralization was already irreversible. The Tatar-Mongol invasion disrupted this natural development of political life in Russia and threw it back.

The Galicia-Volyn principality was formed on the basis of the lands of the former Vladimir-Volyn principality, which was located on the western and southwestern borders of Russia. In the XI - XII centuries. in Vladimir-Volynsky, minor princes ruled, sent here by the great Kievan princes.

The Galicia-Volyn land was located in places exceptionally favorable for the economy, trade, political contacts with the outside world. Its borders approached on one side the foothills of the Carpathians and rested on the course of the Danube. From here it was a stone's throw to Hungary, Bulgaria, to the trade route along the Danube to the center of Europe, to the Balkan countries and Byzantium. From the north, northeast and east, these lands embraced the possessions of the Kyiv principality, which protected it from the onslaught of the mighty Rostov-Suzdal princes.

During the existence of the unified state of Russia, many large cities have grown and flourished in these places. This is Vladimir-Volynsky, named after Vladimir I. For many years it was the residence of the grand ducal governors. Galich, who grew up on the salt trade, was also located here, where in the middle of the 12th century. formed a powerful and independent boyars, active urban strata. The centers of local specific principalities grew noticeably, where the descendants of Rostislav, the son of the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise Vladimir, who died early, "sat". Rostislav Vladimirovich was given lifelong possession of the insignificant Vladimir-Volynsky. In the second half of the XII century. the most notable figures on the political horizon of Galicia-Volyn Rus were the descendants of Rostislav and Monomakh. Let's name five princes here: Galician princes - the grandson of Rostislav Vladimir Volodarevich, his son, Yaroslav Osmomysl, famous for the Tale of Igor's Campaign, Yaroslav's cousin - Ivan Berladnik, as well as the Volyn princes of Monomakh's descendants - his great-great-grandson Roman Mstislavich of Volyn and his son Daniil .

In the middle of the XII century. in the Galician principality, which by this time had become independent and separated from Volhynia, the first great princely turmoil began, behind which the interests of both boyar groups and urban strata were visible. The townspeople of Galich, taking advantage of the departure of their prince Vladimir Volodarevich for hunting, invited his nephew from the younger branch of the same Rostislavichs, Ivan Rostislavich, who reigned in the small town of Zvenigorod, to the city in 1144 to reign. Judging by the later affairs of this prince, he showed himself to be a ruler close to the broad urban strata, and his invitation instead of the eccentric and pugnacious Vladimir Volodarevich was quite natural. Vladimir besieged Galich, but the townspeople stood up for their chosen one, and only the inequality of forces and the lack of military experience among the townspeople tilted the cup in favor of the Galician prince. Ivan fled to the Danube, where he settled in the Berlady region, which is why he received the nickname Berladnik. Vladimir occupied Galich and brutally cracked down on the rebellious townspeople.

After long wanderings, Ivan Berladnik once again tried to return to Galich. The chronicle reports that the smerds openly went over to his side, but he faced strong princely opposition. By this time, his opponent Vladimir Volodarevich had already died, but the Galician throne passed to his son, the energetic, intelligent and warlike Yaroslav Osmomysl, who was married to the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky Olga. Under Yaroslav, the Principality of Galicia reached its peak, was famous for its wealth, developed international relations, especially with Hungary, Poland, Byzantium. True, this was not easy for Yaroslav Osmomysl, and the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, talking about his successes and power, omits the political difficulties that this prince had to experience in the fight against the boyar clans. At first he fought with Ivan Berladnik. Later, his son Vladimir rebelled against him, who, together with his mother, the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky and prominent Galician boyars, fled to Poland. Behind this rebellion one can clearly read the confrontation of the self-willed Galician boyars against the policy of Yaroslav Osmomysl, who sought to centralize power based on the "junior squad" and the townspeople, who suffered from the willfulness of the boyars.

If the Galician principality was firmly in the hands of the Rostislavichs, then the descendants of Monomakh were firmly seated in the Volyn principality. Monomakh's grandson Izyaslav Mstislavich ruled here. By the end of the XII century. and in this principality, as in other large principalities-states, the desire for unification, for the centralization of power, began to be seen. This line manifested itself especially clearly under Prince Roman Mstislavich. Relying on the townspeople, on small landowners, he resisted the willfulness of the boyar clans, subjugated the specific princes with an imperious hand. Under him, the Volyn principality turned into a strong and relatively unified state. Now Roman Mstislavich began to lay claim to the whole of Western Russia. He took advantage of the strife among the rulers of Galich after the death of Yaroslav Osmomysl and tried to reunite the Galician and Volhynian principalities under his rule. At first, he succeeded, but the Hungarian king joined the internecine struggle, who managed to capture Galich and expelled Roman from there. His rival, Osmomysl's son Vladimir, was captured, exiled to Hungary, and imprisoned there in a tower. And only after his death in 1199, Roman Mstislavich again united and now for a long time Volyn and Galich. In the future, he became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, turning into the owner of a vast territory equal to the German Empire.

Roman, like Yaroslav Osmomysl, continued the policy of centralization of power, suppressed boyar separatism, and promoted the development of cities. Similar aspirations were visible in the policy of the emerging centralized power in France, England, and other European countries. The rulers of large Russian principalities in this sense followed the same path as other countries, relying on growing cities and small landowners dependent on them. It was this layer that became in Europe, and later in Russia, the basis of the nobility - the support of the central government. But if in Europe this process went naturally, then in Russia it was interrupted at the very beginning by the devastating Tatar-Mongol invasion.

The Novgorod Boyar Republic occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals.

Novgorod land was far from the nomads and did not experience the horror of their raids. The wealth of the Novgorod land consisted in the presence of a huge land fund, which fell into the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the local tribal nobility. Novgorod did not have enough of its own bread, but fishing activities - hunting, fishing, salt making, iron production, beekeeping - received significant development and gave considerable income to the boyars. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an exceptionally favorable geographical position: the city was at the crossroads of trade routes that connected Western Europe with Russia, and through it - with the East and Byzantium. Dozens of ships were moored at the berths of the Volkhov River in Novgorod.

As a rule, Novgorod was ruled by that of the princes who held the throne of Kiev. This allowed the eldest among the Rurik princes to control the great path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" and dominate Russia. Using the dissatisfaction of the Novgorodians (the uprising of 1136), the boyars, which had significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power. Novgorod became a boyar republic. The supreme body of the republic was the veche, at which the Novgorod administration was elected, the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy were considered, etc. Along with the citywide veche, there were "Konchan" ones (the city was divided into five districts - the ends, and the entire Novgorod land - into five regions - Pyatin) and "Ulichansky" (uniting the inhabitants of the streets) veche gatherings. The actual owners of the veche were 300 "golden belts" - the largest boyars of Novgorod.

The inhabitants of the Novgorod land managed to repulse the onslaught of crusader aggression in the 40s of the XIII century. The Mongol-Tatars could not capture the city either, but the heavy tribute and dependence on the Golden Horde affected the further development of this region.

A huge impact on the fate of Russia, as well as many other countries of Europe and Asia, was education at the beginning of the 13th century. in the steppes of Central Asia a strong Mongolian state. Mongolian tribes in the XII-XIII centuries. occupied the territory of modern Mongolia and Buryatia. At the beginning of the XIII century. they united under the rule of one of the khans - Temujin.

In 1206, at the kurultai (congress of tribes), he was proclaimed the Great Khan under the name of Genghis Khan. In 1213 the conquests of the Mongols began. For 20 years they conquered Northern China, Korea, Central Asia, Transcaucasia. In the Black Sea steppes, the Mongols clashed with the Polovtsians. The Polovtsian Khan Kotyan turned to the princes of Kyiv, Chernigov and Galicia for help. In 1223, a battle took place on the Kalka River, which became the first clash between the Russians and the Mongols. The combined forces of the Russians and the Polovtsy were defeated. The main reason for the defeat was the weakness of the Russian regiments, separated by princely strife. Only a tenth of the Russian troops returned from the campaign. Despite their success, the Mongols turned back to the steppe.

In 1235, the Mongol khans decide to march west. The raid was led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (Batu). The latest research determines the number of Mongol troops at 65,000 soldiers. In historical science, the question of who nevertheless attacked Russia remains open: the Mongols, Tatars or Mongol-Tatars. According to Russian chronicles - Tatars. In 1236, the Mongols captured the Volga Bulgaria and subjugated the nomadic peoples of the steppe to their power. In 1237 Batu Khan invaded Russian lands. The first Russian city to be devastated was Ryazan. After a six-day siege, she was taken. In January 1238 the Mongols invaded the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Batu took Vladimir on the fourth day of the siege. The same befell many cities of North-Eastern Russia. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the appearance of the enemy under the walls of Vladimir, went to gather an army, but on the Sit River on March 4, 1238, the Russian squads were defeated, and Prince Yuri died. The Mongols moved to the North-West of Russia and did not reach Novgorod only 100 km. Spring forced Batu to retreat to the steppe. But even on the way home, the Mongols ravaged the Russian lands.

In 1239-1240. Batu fell on southern Russia. In 1240 he laid siege to Kyiv, captured and destroyed it. In 1240-1242. The Mongols invaded Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic. Having met stubborn resistance and weakened by previous campaigns, Batu retreated to the east. In 1242, the Mongols in the lower reaches of the Volga formed a new state - the Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi), which was formally part of the Mongol Empire. It included the lands of the Volga Bulgars, Polovtsy, Crimea, Western Siberia, the Urals, and Central Asia. The city of Sarai Batu became the capital.

The Russian people waged a selfless struggle, but the disunity and inconsistency of actions made it unsuccessful. The defeat led to the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia. The term "yoke" was first used by N.M. Karamzin. In historical literature, there are two points of view on the Mongol yoke. The traditional one views it as a disaster for the Russian lands. Another - interprets the invasion of Batu as an ordinary raid of nomads. According to the traditional point of view, the yoke is a fairly flexible system of rule, which changed depending on the political situation (first - bloody conquest and raids, then - economic oppression and political dependence). The yoke included a set of measures. In 1257-1259. the Mongols conducted a census of the Russian population to calculate tribute (household taxation, the so-called "Horde exit"). Governors were appointed to the Russian lands - Baskaks with strong military detachments. Their task was to keep the population in obedience, to control the collection and delivery of tribute to the Volga. Supporters of the traditional point of view assess the impact of the yoke on various aspects of the life of Russia extremely negatively. There was a massive movement of the population to the west and northwest, and with it the agricultural culture in areas with a less favorable climate. The political and social role of cities has sharply decreased. Strengthened the power of the prince in relation to the population.

A different point of view on the Mongol yoke belongs to the "Eurasians" and L.N. Gumilyov. He viewed the Mongol invasion not as a conquest, but as a "great cavalry raid" (Gumilyov). Only those cities that stood in the way of the horde were destroyed; the Mongols did not leave garrisons; no permanent power was established; with the end of the campaign, Batu went to the Volga. The purpose of this raid was not the conquest of Russia, but the war with the Polovtsy. Since the Polovtsy held the line between the Don and the Volga, the Mongols used a tactical bypass and made a "cavalry raid" through the Ryazan and Vladimir principalities. The facts show that the Batu invasion caused enormous damage (out of 74 cities of Ancient Russia, 49 were destroyed). But the influence of the Mongol pogrom on the historical fate of the Russian people should not be exaggerated. Almost half of the territory of Russia, including Novgorod land, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk and partly Smolensk principalities, escaped defeat. It is believed that the Mongol invasion marked the beginning of Russia's lagging behind the countries of the West or intensified this process.

In the first half of the 13th century, a formidable danger hung over Russia from the west. The German crusader knights (in 1237 the knights of the two orders, the Teutonic and the Sword, created a new Livonian Order) began to forcibly colonize and Catholicize the Baltic tribes. The Swedes did not leave long-standing claims to the Novgorod lands (Neva and Ladoga). In July 1240, a Swedish landing force led by commander Birger landed on the Neva bank (near Ust-Izhora). Prince of Novgorod Alexander Yaroslavovich attacked the Swedish camp and defeated the enemy. For this victory, he received the honorary nickname "Nevsky". By 1242, the German knights, having captured the cities of Izborsk, Yam and Koporye, threatened Novgorod. On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipus, which went down in history as the “Battle on the Ice”. The victory was achieved thanks to the courage of the Russian soldiers, as well as the military art of Prince Alexander Nevsky. The aggression against Russia was thwarted, the military power of the Livonian Order was significantly weakened.

The entire original cultural experience of the Eastern Slavs became the property of a single Russian culture. It developed as a culture of all Eastern Slavs, while at the same time retaining its regional features - some for the Dnieper region, others for North-Eastern Russia, etc.

The general culture of Russia reflected both the traditions of, say, the Polyans, Severians, Radimichi, Novgorod Slovenes, Vyatichi, and other East Slavic tribes, as well as the influence of neighboring peoples with whom Russia exchanged production skills, traded, fought, reconciled - Ugrofins, Balts, Iranian tribes, other Slavic peoples.

At the time of its state formation, Russia experienced a strong influence of Byzantium, which for its time was one of the most cultured states in the world. Thus, the culture of Russia was formed from the very beginning as a synthetic one, that is, under the influence of various cultural trends, styles, and traditions.

At the same time, Russia not only copied these foreign influences and recklessly borrowed them, but applied them to its cultural traditions, to its people's experience, which came down from the depths of centuries, to its understanding of the world around it, to its idea of ​​beauty. Therefore, in the features of Russian culture, we are constantly confronted not only with influences from outside, but with their sometimes significant spiritual processing, their constant refraction in an absolutely Russian style.

For many years, Russian culture developed under the influence of pagan religion, pagan worldview. With the adoption of Christianity, the position of Russia changed dramatically. The new religion claimed to change the worldview of people, their perception of all life, and hence their ideas about beauty, artistic creativity, aesthetic influence. However, Christianity, having had a strong impact on Russian culture, especially in the field of literature, architecture, art, the development of literacy, schooling, libraries, did not overcome the folk origins of Russian culture. For many years, dual faith remained in Russia: the official religion, which prevailed in the cities, and paganism, which went into the shadows, but still existed in remote parts of Russia, especially in the Northeast, retained its positions in the countryside. The development of Russian culture reflected this duality in the spiritual life of society, in the life of the people. Pagan spiritual traditions, folk at their core, had a profound impact on the entire development of Russian culture in the early Middle Ages.

The basis of any ancient culture is writing. When did it originate in Russia? For a long time there was an opinion that the letter came to Russia along with Christianity. However, it is difficult to agree with this. There is evidence of the existence of Slavic writing long before the Christianization of Russia. In 1949, during excavations near Smolensk, they found an earthenware vessel dating back to the beginning of the 10th century, on which “gorushna” (spice) was written. This meant that already at that time in the East Slavic environment there was a letter, there was an alphabet. This is also evidenced by the "Life" of the Byzantine diplomat and Slavic educator Cyril. During his stay in Chersonese in the 60s. 9th century he got acquainted with the Gospel, written in Slavonic letters. Subsequently, Cyril and his brother Methodius became the founders of the Slavic alphabet, which, apparently, was based in some part on the principles of Slavic writing that existed among the Eastern, Southern and Western Slavs long before their Christianization.

We must also remember that the agreements between Russia and Byzantium, dating back to the first half of the 10th century, also had copies in the Slavic language. By this time, the existence of translators and scribes, who wrote down the speeches of ambassadors on parchment, dates back.

The Christianization of Russia gave a powerful impetus to the further development of writing and literacy. Church scholars and translators from Byzantium, Bulgaria, Serbia began to come to Russia. There appeared, especially during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons, numerous translations of Greek and Bulgarian books, both ecclesiastical and secular. In particular, Byzantine historical writings and biographies of saints are being translated. These translations became the property of literate people: they were read with pleasure in the princely-boyar, merchant environment, in monasteries, churches, where Russian chronicle writing was born. In the XI century. such popular translated works as "Alexandria", containing legends and traditions about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great, "Devgeniev's deed", which was a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about the exploits of the warrior Digenis, are spreading.

We do not know the names of the authors of the legends about Oleg's campaigns, about Olga's baptism or Svyatoslav's wars. The first known author of a literary work in Russia was the priest of the princely church in Berestov, later Metropolitan Hilarion. In the early 40s. 11th century he created his famous "Sermon on Law and Grace", in which he outlined his understanding of the place of Russia in world history in a vivid publicistic form. This "Word" is devoted to the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Russia, the full-fledged place of Russia among other peoples and states, the role of the grand duke's power, its significance for the Russian lands. The "Word" explained the meaning of the baptism of Russia, revealed the role of the Russian Church in the history of the country. This enumeration alone indicates the scale of Illarion's work. In the second half of the XI century. other bright literary and journalistic works appear: “The Memory and Praise of Vladimir” by the monk Jacob, in which the ideas of Hilarion are further developed and applied to the historical figure of Vladimir.

The culture of Russia was embodied in its architecture. Russia for many years was a country of wood, and its architecture, its pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, huts were built of wood. In a tree, a Russian person, like the peoples living next to the Eastern Slavs, expressed his perception of building beauty, a sense of proportion, the fusion of architectural structures with the surrounding nature. If wooden architecture dates back mainly to pagan Russia, then stone architecture is associated with Christian Russia. Unfortunately, the ancient wooden buildings have not survived to this day, but the architectural style of the people has come down to us in later wooden structures, in ancient descriptions and drawings. Russian wooden architecture was characterized by multi-tiered buildings, crowned with turrets and towers.

And, of course, folklore was an important element of the entire ancient Russian culture - songs, legends, epics, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, fairy tales. Many features of the life of people of that time were reflected in wedding, drinking, funeral songs. So, in ancient wedding songs, it was also said about the time when brides were kidnapped, “kidnapped”, (of course, with their consent), in later ones - when they were ransomed, and in songs already of Christian times, there was a question of the consent of both the bride, and parents for marriage.

The denial of the greatness of Russia is a terrible robbery of mankind.

Berdyaev Nikolai Alexandrovich

The origin of the ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus is one of the biggest mysteries in history. Of course, there is an official version that gives many answers, but it has one drawback - it completely sweeps aside everything that happened to the Slavs before 862. Is everything really as bad as it is written in Western books, when the Slavs are compared with semi-wild people who are not able to govern themselves and for this were forced to turn to an outsider, a Varangian, to teach them the mind? Of course, this is an exaggeration, since such a people cannot take Byzantium by storm twice before this time, and our ancestors did it!

In this material, we will adhere to the main policy of our site - a statement of facts that are known for certain. Also on these pages we will point out the main points that historians manage under various pretexts, but in our opinion they can shed light on what happened on our lands at that distant time.

Formation of the state of Kievan Rus

Modern history puts forward two main versions, according to which the formation of the state of Kievan Rus took place:

1. Norman. This theory is based on a rather dubious historical document - The Tale of Bygone Years. Also, supporters of the Norman version talk about various records from European scientists. This version is basic and accepted by history. According to her, the ancient tribes of the eastern communities could not govern themselves and called on three Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor.
2. anti-Norman (Russian). The Norman theory, despite being generally accepted, looks rather controversial. After all, it does not answer even a simple question, who are the Vikings? For the first time, anti-Norman statements were formulated by the great scientist Mikhail Lomonosov. This man was distinguished by the fact that he actively defended the interests of his homeland and publicly declared that the history of the ancient Russian state was written by the Germans and has no logic behind it. The Germans in this case are not a nation, as such, but a collective image that was used to call all foreigners who did not speak Russian. They were called dumb, hence the Germans.

In fact, until the end of the 9th century, not a single mention of the Slavs remained in the annals. This is rather strange, since quite civilized people lived here. This issue is analyzed in great detail in the material about the Huns, who, according to numerous versions, were none other than Russians. Now I would like to note that when Rurik came to the ancient Russian state, there were cities, ships, their own culture, their own language, their own traditions and customs. And the cities were quite well fortified from a military point of view. Somehow this is weakly connected with the generally accepted version that our ancestors at that time ran with a digging stick.

The ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus was formed in 862, when the Varangian Rurik came to rule in Novgorod. An interesting point is that this prince carried out his rule of the country from Ladoga. In 864, the companions of the Novgorod prince Askold and Dir went down the Dnieper and discovered the city of Kyiv, in which they began to rule. After the death of Rurik, Oleg took custody of his young son, who went on a campaign to Kyiv, killed Askold and Dir and took possession of the future capital of the country. It happened in 882. Therefore, the formation of Kievan Rus can be attributed to this date. During the reign of Oleg, the country's possessions expanded due to the conquest of new cities, and there was also a strengthening of international power, as a result of wars with external enemies, such as Byzantium. There were respectable relations between the princes of Novgorod and Kyiv, and their minor junctions did not lead to major wars. Reliable information on this subject has not been preserved, but many historians say that these people were brothers and only blood ties held back the bloodshed.

Formation of statehood

Kievan Russia was a truly powerful state, respected in other countries. Its political center was Kyiv. It was the capital, which, in its beauty and wealth, had no equal. The impregnable city-fortress Kyiv on the banks of the Dnieper was a stronghold of Russia for a long time. This order was violated as a result of the first fragmentation, which damaged the power of the state. It all ended with the invasion of the Tatar-Mongolian troops, who literally razed the "mother of Russian cities" to the ground. According to the surviving records of contemporaries of that terrible event, Kyiv was destroyed to the ground and lost forever its beauty, significance and wealth. Since then, the status of the first city did not belong to him.

An interesting expression is “the mother of Russian cities”, which is still actively used by people from different countries. Here we are faced with another attempt to falsify history, since at the moment when Oleg captured Kyiv, Russia already existed, and Novgorod was its capital. Yes, and the princes got to the capital city of Kyiv itself, having descended along the Dnieper from Novgorod.

Internecine wars and the causes of the collapse of the ancient Russian state

The internecine war is that terrible nightmare that tormented the Russian lands for many decades. The reason for these events was the lack of a coherent system of succession to the throne. In the ancient Russian state, a situation developed when, after one ruler, a huge number of contenders for the throne remained - sons, brothers, nephews, etc. And each of them sought to exercise their right to control Russia. This inevitably led to wars, when the supreme power was asserted by arms.

In the struggle for power, individual applicants did not shy away from anything, even fratricide. The story of Svyatopolk the Accursed, who killed his brothers, is widely known, for which he received this nickname. Despite the contradictions that reigned within the Rurikids, Kievan Rus was ruled by the Grand Duke.

In many ways, it was internecine wars that led the ancient Russian state to a state close to collapse. It happened in 1237, when the ancient Russian lands first heard about the Tatar-Mongols. They brought terrible misfortunes to our ancestors, but internal problems, disunity and unwillingness of the princes to defend the interests of other lands led to a great tragedy, and for a long 2 centuries Russia became completely dependent on the Golden Horde.

All these events led to a completely predictable outcome - the ancient Russian lands began to disintegrate. The date of the beginning of this process is considered to be 1132, which was marked by the death of Prince Mstislav, nicknamed the Great by the people. This led to the fact that the two cities of Polotsk and Novgorod refused to recognize the authority of his successor.

All these events led to the disintegration of the state into small destinies, which were ruled by individual rulers. Of course, the leading role of the Grand Duke remained, but this title looked more like a crown, which was used only by the strongest as a result of regular civil strife.

Key events

Kievan Rus is the first form of Russian statehood, which had many great pages in its history. The following can be distinguished as the main events of the era of the Kievan rise:

• 862 - the arrival of the Varangian-Rurik to Novgorod to reign
• 882 - Prophetic Oleg captured Kyiv
• 907 - campaign against Constantinople
• 988 - Baptism of Russia
• 1097 - Lubech Congress of Princes
• 1125-1132 - reign of Mstislav the Great

Old Russian state Old Russian state

a state in Eastern Europe that arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands located along the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (settlements in the area of ​​Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdova, etc.). In 882 Prince Oleg captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the state. In 988-89 Vladimir I Svyatoslavich introduced Christianity as the state religion (see Baptism of Russia). In the cities (Kyiv, Novgorod, Ladoga, Beloozero, Rostov, Suzdal, Pskov, Polotsk, etc.), handicrafts, trade, and education developed. Relations were established and deepened with the southern and western Slavs, Byzantium, Western and Northern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Old Russian princes repulsed the raids of nomads (Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians). The reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-54) is the period of the greatest prosperity of the state. Public relations were regulated by the Russian Truth and other legal acts. In the second half of the XI century. princely civil strife and raids of the Polovtsy led to a weakening of the state. Attempts to preserve the unity of the ancient Russian state were made by Prince Vladimir II Monomakh (ruled 1113-25) and his son Mstislav (ruled 1125-32). In the second quarter of the XII century. the state entered the final phase of disintegration into independent principalities, the Novgorod and Pskov republics.

OLD RUSSIAN STATE

OLD RUSSIAN STATE (Kievan Rus), a state of the 9th - early 12th centuries. in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty (cm. RURIKOVICH) two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements in the area of ​​Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdov) located along the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (cm. THE WAY FROM THE VARANGIANS TO THE GREEKS). During its heyday, the Old Russian state covered the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west, to the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north. The formation of the state was preceded by a long period (from the 6th century) of the maturation of its prerequisites in the depths of military democracy. (cm. MILITARY DEMOCRACY). During the existence of the Old Russian state, the East Slavic tribes formed into the Old Russian people.
Socio-political system
Power in Russia belonged to the prince of Kyiv, who was surrounded by a retinue (cm. DRUZHINA), dependent on him and fed mainly at the expense of his campaigns. Veche also played a certain role (cm. VECHE). The administration of the state was carried out with the help of thousands and sots, that is, on the basis of a military organization. The prince's income came from various sources. In the 10th - early 11th centuries. this is basically "polyudye", "lessons" (tribute), received annually from the field.
In the 11th - early 12th centuries. in connection with the emergence of large landownership with various types of rent, the functions of the prince expanded. Owning his own large domain, the prince was forced to manage a complex economy, appoint posadniks, volostels, tiuns, and manage a numerous administration. He was a military leader, now he had to organize not so much a squad as a militia, led by vassals, to hire foreign troops. Measures to strengthen and protect external borders have become more complicated. The power of the prince was unlimited, but he had to reckon with the opinion of the boyars. The role of the veche declined. The princely court became the administrative center, where all the threads of government converged. Palace officials arose who were in charge of individual branches of government. At the head of the cities was the city patriciate, which was formed in the 11th century. from large local landowners - "elders" and warriors. Noble families played a big role in the history of cities (for example, the family of Jan Vyshatich, Ratibor, Chudin - in Kyiv, Dmitry Zavidich - in Novgorod). Merchants enjoyed great influence in the city. The need to protect goods during transportation led to the emergence of armed merchant guards; among the city militia, merchants occupied the first place. The largest part of the urban population were artisans, both free and dependent. A special place was occupied by the clergy, divided into black (monastic) and white (secular). The head of the Russian Church was usually appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, the Metropolitan, to whom the bishops were subordinate. Monasteries headed by abbots were subject to bishops and the metropolitan.
The rural population consisted of free communal peasants (their number was decreasing), and already enslaved peasants. There was a group of peasants who were cut off from the community, deprived of the means of production and who were the labor force within the patrimony. The growth of large landownership, the enslavement of free community members and the growth of their exploitation led to an intensification of the class struggle in the 11th-12th centuries. (uprisings in Suzdal in 1024; in Kyiv in 1068-1069; on Beloozero about 1071; in Kyiv in 1113). The uprisings in most cases were disunited, they were attended by pagan sorcerers, who used disgruntled peasants to fight the new religion - Christianity. A particularly strong wave of popular uprisings swept through Russia in the 1060s-1070s. in connection with the famine and the invasion of the Polovtsians. During these years, a collection of laws "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs" was created, a number of articles of which provided for punishment for the murder of employees of the patrimony. Public relations were regulated by Russian Truth (cm. RUSSIAN PRAVDA (code of law)) and other legal acts.
Political history
The course of historical events in the Old Russian state is known from the annals (cm. CHRONICLES) compiled in Kyiv and Novgorod by monks. According to The Tale of Bygone Years (cm. THE TALE OF TIME YEARS)”, the first prince of Kyiv was the legendary Kiy. The dating of the facts begins with 852 AD. e. The chronicle includes a legend about the calling of the Varangians (862) headed by Rurik, which became in the 18th century. the basis of the Norman theory of the creation of the Old Russian state by the Vikings. Two associates of Rurik - Askold and Dir moved to Tsargrad along the Dnieper, subjugating Kyiv along the way. After the death of Rurik, power in Novgorod passed to the Varangian Oleg (d. 912), who, having dealt with Askold and Dir, captured Kyiv (882), and in 883-885. conquered the Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi and in 907 and 911. made campaigns against Byzantium.
Oleg's successor Prince Igor continued his active foreign policy. In 913, through Itil, he made a trip to the western coast of the Caspian Sea, twice (941, 944) attacked Byzantium. Tribute demands from the Drevlyans caused their uprising and the murder of Igor (945). His wife Olga was one of the first in Russia to adopt Christianity, streamlined local government and established tribute standards (“lessons”). The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav Igorevich (ruled 964-972), ensured the freedom of trade routes to the east, through the lands of the Volga Bulgars and the Khazars, and strengthened the international position of Russia. Russia under Svyatoslav settled on the Black Sea and on the Danube (Tmutarakan, Belgorod, Pereyaslavets on the Danube), but after an unsuccessful war with Byzantium, Svyatoslav was forced to abandon his conquests in the Balkans. Upon returning to Russia, he was killed by the Pechenegs.
Svyatoslav was succeeded by his son Yaropolk, who killed a competitor - Oleg's brother, the Drevlyansk prince (977). The younger brother of Yaropolk, Vladimir Svyatoslavich, with the help of the Varangians, captured Kyiv. Yaropolk was killed, and Vladimir became the Grand Duke (reigned 980-1015). The need to replace the old ideology of the tribal system with the ideology of the nascent state prompted Vladimir to introduce in Russia in 988-989. Christianity in the form of Byzantine Orthodoxy. The first to accept the Christian religion were the social elites, the masses of the people held on to pagan beliefs for a long time. The reign of Vladimir accounts for the heyday of the Old Russian state, whose lands stretched from the Baltic and the Carpathians to the Black Sea steppes. After the death of Vladimir (1015), a strife arose between his sons, in which two of them were killed - Boris and Gleb, who were canonized by the church. Svyatopolk, the murderer of the brothers, fled after fighting with his brother Yaroslav the Wise, who became the prince of Kyiv (1019-1054). In 1021, Yaroslav was opposed by the Polotsk prince Bryachislav (reigned in 1001-1044), with whom peace was bought at the price of ceding to Bryachislav key points on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" - Usvyatsky portage and Vitebsk. Three years later, Yaroslav was opposed by his brother, Prince Mstislav of Tmutarakan. After the battle at Listven (1024), the Old Russian state was divided along the Dnieper: the right bank with Kyiv went to Yaroslav, the left bank - to Mstislav. After the death of Mstislav (1036), the unity of Russia was restored. Yaroslav the Wise led energetic activities to strengthen the state, eliminate church dependence on Byzantium (the formation of an independent metropolis in 1037) and expand urban planning. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the political ties of Ancient Russia with the states of Western Europe were strengthened. The Old Russian state had dynastic ties with Germany, France, Hungary, Byzantium, Poland, and Norway.
The sons who inherited Yaroslav divided their father's possessions: Izyaslav Yaroslavich received Kyiv, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich - Chernigov, Vsevolod Yaroslavich - Pereyaslavl South. The Yaroslavichi tried to preserve the unity of the Old Russian state, tried to act in concert, but they could not prevent the process of state disintegration. The situation was complicated by the onslaught of the Polovtsy, in a battle with which the Yaroslavichs were defeated. The people's militia demanded weapons to resist the enemy. The refusal led to an uprising in Kyiv (1068), the flight of Izyaslav and the reign of Polotsk Vseslav Bryachislavich in Kyiv, who was expelled in 1069 by the combined forces of Izyaslav and Polish troops. Soon feuds arose among the Yaroslavichs, which led to the exile of Izyaslav to Poland (1073). After the death of Svyatoslav (1076), Izyaslav returned to Kyiv again, but was soon killed in battle (1078). Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who became the prince of Kyiv (reigned in 1078-1093), could not restrain the process of disintegration of the unified state. Only after the invasions of the Polovtsy (1093-1096 and 1101-1103) did the ancient Russian princes unite around the Kyiv prince to repel the common danger.
At the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. in the largest centers of Russia reigned: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1093-1113) in Kyiv, Oleg Svyatoslavich in Chernigov, Vladimir Monomakh in Pereyaslavl. Vladimir Monomakh was a subtle politician, he urged the princes to unite more closely in the fight against the Polovtsy. The congresses of princes convened for this purpose did not justify themselves (Lyubechsky congress, Dolobsky congress). After the death of Svyatopolk (1113), a city uprising broke out in Kyiv. Monomakh, invited to reign in Kiev, issued a compromise law that eased the position of debtors. Gradually, he strengthened his position as the supreme ruler of Russia. Having pacified the Novgorodians, Vladimir put his sons in Pereyaslavl, Smolensk and Novgorod. He almost unilaterally disposed of all the military forces of Ancient Russia, directed them not only against the Polovtsians, but also against recalcitrant vassals and neighbors. As a result of campaigns deep into the steppe, the Polovtsian danger was eliminated. But, despite the efforts of Monomakh, it was not possible to prevent the collapse of the Old Russian state. Objective historical processes continued to develop, which was expressed primarily in the rapid growth of local centers - Chernigov, Galich, Smolensk, striving for independence. The son of Monomakh, Mstislav Vladimirovich (who reigned in 1125-1132), managed to inflict a new defeat on the Polovtsy and send their princes to Byzantium (1129). After the death of Mstislav (1132), the Old Russian state broke up into a number of independent principalities. The period of fragmentation of Russia began.
Fight against nomads. Ancient Russia waged a constant struggle with the nomadic hordes, who alternately lived in the Black Sea steppes: Khazars, Ugrians, Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians. Nomads of the Pechenegs at the end of the 9th century. occupied the steppes from Sarkel on the Don to the Danube. Their raids forced Vladimir Svyatoslavich to strengthen the southern borders (“set up cities”). Yaroslav the Wise in 1036 actually destroyed the western unification of the Pechenegs. But then Torks appeared in the Black Sea steppes, which in 1060 were defeated by the combined forces of the ancient Russian princes. From the second half of the 11th c. the steppes from the Volga to the Danube began to be occupied by the Polovtsy, who mastered the most important trade routes between Europe and the countries of the East. The Polovtsy won a major victory over the Russians in 1068. Russia withstood a strong onslaught of the Polovtsy in 1093-1096, which required the unification of all its princes. In 1101 relations with the Polovtsy improved, but already in 1103 the Polovtsy violated the peace treaty. It took a series of campaigns by Vladimir Monomakh against the Polovtsian winter quarters in the depths of the steppes, which ended in 1117 with their migration to the south, to the North Caucasus. The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav, pushed the Polovtsy beyond the Don, Volga and Yaik.
economy
In the era of the formation of the Old Russian state, arable farming with draft tillage tools gradually replaced hoe tillage everywhere (in the north somewhat later). A three-field system of agriculture appeared; wheat, oats, millet, rye, barley were grown. Chronicles mention spring and winter bread. The population was also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. The village craft was of secondary importance. Iron-making production, based on local swamp ore, stood out the earliest. The metal was obtained by raw-blowing method. Written sources give several terms for designating a rural settlement: “pogost” (“peace”), “freedom” (“sloboda”), “village”, “village”. The study of the ancient Russian village by archaeologists made it possible to identify various types of settlements, to establish their size and the nature of development.
The main trend in the development of the social system of Ancient Russia was the formation of feudal ownership of land, with the gradual enslavement of free community members. The result of the enslavement of the village was its inclusion in the system of feudal economy based on labor and food rent. Along with this, there were elements of slavery (servility).
In the 6th-7th centuries. in the forest zone, the places of settlements of a clan or a small family (fortifications) disappear, and they are replaced by unfortified village settlements and fortified estates of the nobility. The patrimonial economy begins to take shape. The center of the patrimony is the "princeyard", in which the prince lived at times, where, in addition to his choir, there were houses of his servants - boyars-druzhins, dwellings of smerds, serfs. The patrimony was ruled by a boyar - an ognischanin, who disposed of princely tiuns (cm. TIUN). Representatives of the patrimonial administration had both economic and political functions. Crafts developed in the patrimonial economy. With the complication of the patrimonial system, the seclusion of the private artisans began to disappear, and there was a connection with the market and competition with urban crafts.
The development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of cities. The most ancient of them are Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Rostov, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk. The center of the city was a trade where handicraft products were sold. Various types of crafts developed in the city: blacksmithing, weapons, jewelry (forging and chasing, embossing and stamping of silver and gold, filigree, granulation), pottery, leather, tailoring. In the second half of the 10th c. master marks appeared. Under Byzantine influence at the end of the 10th century. enamel production began. In large cities there were trading farmsteads for visiting merchants - "guests".
The trade route from Russia to the eastern countries passed along the Volga and the Caspian Sea. The path to Byzantium and Scandinavia (the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks"), in addition to the main direction (Dnepr - Lovat), had a branch to the Western Dvina. Two routes led to the west: from Kyiv to Central Europe (Moravia, Czech Republic, Poland, Southern Germany) and from Novgorod and Polotsk across the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia and the Southern Baltic. In the 9th - mid-11th centuries. in Russia, the influence of Arab merchants was great, trade ties with Byzantium and Khazaria were strengthened. Ancient Russia exported furs, wax, linen, linen, silverware to Western Europe. Expensive fabrics (Byzantine curtains, brocade, oriental silks), silver and copper in dirhems, tin, lead, copper, spices, incense, medicinal plants, dyes, Byzantine church utensils were imported. Later, in the middle of the 11th-12th centuries. In connection with the change in the international situation (the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, the dominance of the Polovtsians in the southern Russian steppes, the beginning of the Crusades), many traditional trade routes were disrupted. The penetration of Western European merchants into the Black Sea, the competition of the Genoese and Venetians paralyzed the trade of Ancient Russia in the south, and by the end of the 12th century. it was mainly moved to the north - to Novgorod, Smolensk and Polotsk.
culture
The culture of Ancient Russia is rooted in the depths of the culture of the Slavic tribes. During the formation and development of the state, it reached a high level and was enriched by the influence of Byzantine culture. As a result, Kievan Rus was among the culturally advanced states of its time. The center of culture was the city. Literacy in the Old Russian state was relatively widespread among the people, as evidenced by birch bark letters and inscriptions on household items (whorls, barrels, vessels). There is information about the existence of schools in Russia at that time (even for women).
The parchment books of Ancient Russia have survived to this day: translated literature, collections, liturgical books; among them the oldest - "Ostromir Gospel (cm. OSTROMIROVO GOSPEL)". The most educated in Russia were the monks. Prominent cultural figures were Metropolitan Hilarion of Kyiv (cm. HILARION (metropolitan)), Bishop of Novgorod Luka Zhidyata (cm. LUKA Zhidyata), Theodosius Pechersky (cm. THEODOSIY Pechersky), chroniclers Nikon (cm. NIKON (chronicler)), Nestor (cm. NESTOR (chronicler)), Sylvester (cm. Sylvester Pechersky). The assimilation of Church Slavonic writing was accompanied by the transfer to Russia of the main monuments of early Christian and Byzantine literature: biblical books, the writings of the church fathers, the lives of the saints, the apocrypha (“The Virgin’s Passage through the Torments”), historiography (“The Chronicle” of John Malala), as well as works of Bulgarian literature (“ Shestodnev" by John), Chekhomoravian (lives of Vyacheslav and Lyudmila). In Russia, the Byzantine chronicles (George Amartol, Sinkella), the epic (“Deed of Devgen”), “Alexandria”, “The History of the Jewish War” by Josephus Flavius, from Hebrew - the book "Esther", from Syriac - the story of Akira the Wise . From the second quarter of the 11th c. original literature develops (chronicles, lives of saints, sermons). In the "Sermon on Law and Grace," Metropolitan Hilarion treated with rhetorical art the problems of the superiority of Christianity over paganism, the greatness of Russia among other peoples. The Kievan and Novgorod chronicles were imbued with the ideas of state building. The chroniclers turned to the poetic traditions of pagan folklore. Nestor came to realize the kinship of the East Slavic tribes with all the Slavs. His "Tale of Bygone Years" acquired the significance of an outstanding chronicle of the European Middle Ages. Hagiographic literature was saturated with topical political issues, and its heroes were the princes-saints (“The Lives of Boris and Gleb”), and then the ascetics of the church (“The Life of Theodosius of the Caves”, “The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon”). In the lives for the first time, although in a schematic form, human experiences were depicted. Patriotic ideas were expressed in the genre of pilgrimage (The Journey by Abbot Daniel). In the "Instruction" to the sons, Vladimir Monomakh created the image of a just ruler, a zealous owner, an exemplary family man. Old Russian literary traditions and the richest oral epic prepared the emergence of the "Tale of Igor's Campaign (cm. A WORD ABOUT IGOREV'S POLIC)».
The experience of the East Slavic tribes in wooden architecture and construction of fortified settlements, dwellings, sanctuaries, their handicraft skills and traditions of artistic creativity were assimilated by the art of Ancient Russia. In its formation, a huge role was played by the trends coming from abroad (from Byzantium, the Balkan and Scandinavian countries, Transcaucasia and the Middle East). In the relatively short period of the heyday of Ancient Russia, Russian masters mastered new methods of stone architecture, the art of mosaics, frescoes, icon painting, and book miniatures.
The types of ordinary settlements and dwellings, the technique of erecting wooden buildings from horizontally laid logs for a long time remained the same as that of the ancient Slavs. But already in the 9th - early 10th centuries. extensive yards of estates appeared, and in princely possessions - wooden castles (Lyubech). From the fortified settlements, fortress cities developed with residential buildings inside and with outbuildings adjacent to the defensive rampart (Kolodyazhnenskoe and Raykovets settlements, both in the Zhytomyr region; destroyed in 1241).
On trade routes at the confluence of rivers or at river bends, cities grew from large settlements of the Slavs and new ones were founded. They were composed of a fortress on a hill (detinets, the kremlin - the residence of the prince and a refuge for the townspeople in case of attack by enemies) with a defensive earthen rampart, a chopped wall on it and with a moat from the outside, and from the settlement (sometimes fortified). The streets of the settlement went to the Kremlin (Kyiv, Pskov) or parallel to the river (Novgorod), in some places they had wooden pavements and were built up in treeless areas with huts (Kyiv, Suzdal), and in forest areas - with log houses in one or two log cabins with canopies (Novgorod, Staraya Ladoga). The dwellings of wealthy townspeople consisted of several interconnected log cabins of different heights on the basement, had a tower (“polusha”), external porches and were located in the depths of the courtyard (Novgorod). Mansions in the Kremlin from the middle of the 10th century. had two-story stone parts, either tower-like (Chernigov), or with towers along the edges or in the middle (Kyiv). Sometimes the mansions contained halls with an area of ​​more than 200 square meters (Kyiv). Common to the ancient Russian cities were the picturesque silhouette, dominated by the Kremlin with its colorful mansions and temples, shone with gilded roofs and crosses, and an organic connection with the landscape, which arose due to the use of the terrain not only for strategic, but also for artistic purposes.
From the second half of the 9th c. chronicles mention wooden Christian churches (Kyiv), the number and size of which increase after the baptism of Russia. These were (judging by the conditional images in the manuscripts) rectangular, octagonal or cruciform in terms of construction with a steep roof and a cupola. Later they were crowned with five (the Church of Boris and Gleb in Vyshgorod near Kyiv, 1020-1026, the architect Mironeg) and even thirteen domes (the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, 989). The first stone Church of the Tithes in Kyiv (989-996, destroyed in 1240) was built of alternating rows of stone and flat square plinth bricks on mortar from a mixture of crushed bricks with lime (zemyanka). In the same technique, masonry was erected that appeared in the 11th century. stone travel towers in city fortifications (Golden Gate in Kyiv), stone fortress walls (Pereyaslav Yuzhny, Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, Staraya Ladoga; all late 11th - early 12th centuries) and majestic three-aisled (Savior Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov, begun before 1036) and five-nave (Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv, 1037, Novgorod, 1045-1050, Polotsk, 1044-1066) churches with choirs along three walls for the princes and their entourage. The type of cross-domed church, universal for Byzantine religious construction, is interpreted by ancient Russian architects in its own way - domes on high light drums, flat niches (possibly with frescoes) on the facades, brick patterns in the form of crosses, meander. Old Russian architecture is similar to the architecture of Byzantium, the southern Slavs and Transcaucasia. At the same time, peculiar features are also manifested in ancient Russian churches: many domes (13 domes of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv), stepped arrangement of vaults and rows of semicircles-zakomars corresponding to them on the facades, porch-gallery on three sides. The stepped-pyramidal composition, majestic proportions and tensely slow rhythm, balance of space and mass make the architecture of these significant buildings solemn and full of restrained dynamics. Their interiors, with a contrasting transition from the low side aisles shaded by the choirs to the spacious and brighter domed part of the middle nave leading to the main apse, amaze with emotional intensity and evoke a wealth of impressions that are generated by spatial divisions and a variety of viewpoints.
The best-preserved mosaics and frescoes in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (mid-11th century) were executed mainly by Byzantine masters. The murals in the towers are secular scenes of dances, hunts, and stadiums full of dynamics. In the images of saints, members of the grand-ducal family, the movement is sometimes only indicated, the poses are frontal, the faces are strict. Spiritual life is conveyed through a stingy gesture and wide-open large eyes, whose gaze is fixed directly on the parishioner. This imparts tension and strength to images imbued with high spirituality. By the monumental character of execution and composition they are organically connected with the architecture of the cathedral. The miniature of Ancient Russia (“Ostromir Gospel” 1056-1057) and the colorful initials of handwritten books are distinguished by color richness and subtlety of execution. They resemble contemporary cloisonné enamel, which adorned the grand ducal crowns, pendants-colts, for which the Kyiv craftsmen were famous. In these products and in slate monumental reliefs, the motifs of Slavic and ancient mythology are combined with Christian symbols and iconography, reflecting the dual faith typical of the Middle Ages, which had long been retained among the people.
In the 11th century receives development and icon painting. The works of Kyiv masters were widely recognized, especially the icons of the work of Alympius (cm. ALIMPIUS), which until the Mongol-Tatar invasion served as models for icon painters of all ancient Russian principalities. However, icons unconditionally related to the art of Kievan Rus have not been preserved.
In the second half of the 11th c. the princely construction of temples is being replaced by monastic construction. In fortresses and country castles, the princes built only small churches (Mikhailovskaya Goddess in Ostra, 1098, preserved in ruins; the Church of the Savior on Berestov in Kyiv, between 1113 and 1125), and the leading type is the three-nave six-pillar monastery cathedral, more modest in size than urban, often without galleries and with choirs only along the western wall. Its static, closed volume, massive walls, divided into narrow parts by flat ledges-blades, create the impression of power and ascetic simplicity. Single-dome cathedrals are being built in Kyiv, sometimes without stair towers (the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Caves Monastery, 1073-1078, destroyed in 1941). Novgorod churches of the early 12th century. crowned with three domes, one of which is above the stair tower (the cathedrals of Antoniev, founded in 1117, and St. George's, begun in 1119, monasteries), or five domes (Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral, founded in 1113). The simplicity and power of architecture, the organic fusion of the tower with the main volume of the cathedral of the St. George's Monastery (architect Peter), giving integrity to its composition, distinguish this temple as one of the highest achievements of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century.
At the same time, the style of painting also changed. In the mosaics and frescoes of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv (circa 1108, the cathedral was not preserved, restored anew) made by Byzantine and Old Russian artists, the composition becomes freer, the refined psychologism of images is enhanced by the liveliness of movements and the individualization of characteristics. At the same time, as the mosaic is replaced by a cheaper and more accessible fresco, the role of local masters grows, who in their works depart from the canons of Byzantine art and at the same time flatten the image, strengthen the contour principle. In the paintings of the baptismal of St. Sophia Cathedral and the Cathedral of the St. Cyril Monastery (both in Kyiv, 12th century), Slavic features prevail in types of faces, costumes, figures become squat, their color modeling is replaced by linear elaboration, colors brighten, halftones disappear; images of saints become closer to folklore ideas.
The artistic culture of the Old Russian state was further developed during the period of fragmentation in various ancient Russian principalities, due to the peculiarities of their economic and political life. A number of local schools arose (Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod), retaining a genetic commonality with the art of Kievan Rus and some similarities in artistic and stylistic evolution. In the local currents of the Dnieper and western principalities, the northeastern and northwestern lands, folk poetic ideas make themselves felt more strongly. The expressive possibilities of art are expanding, but the pathos of form is weakening.
A variety of sources (folk songs, epics, chronicles, works of ancient Russian literature, monuments of fine art) testify to the high development of ancient Russian music. Along with various types of folk art, military and solemn-ceremonial music played an important role. Trumpeters and performers on "tambourines" (percussion instruments such as drums or timpani) took part in military campaigns. At the court of the princes and the retinue nobility, singers and instrumentalists, both local and from Byzantium, were in the service. The singers sang the feats of arms of their contemporaries and legendary heroes in songs and tales that they themselves composed and performed to the accompaniment of the harp. Music sounded during official receptions, festivities, at the feasts of princes and eminent people. In folk life, a prominent place was occupied by the art of buffoons, in which singing and instrumental music were presented. Buffoons often appeared in princely palaces. After the adoption and spread of Christianity, church music was widely developed. The early written monuments of Russian musical art are associated with it - handwritten liturgical books with a conditional ideographic record of tunes. The foundations of ancient Russian church singing art were borrowed from Byzantium, but their further gradual transformation led to the formation of an independent singing style - Znamenny chant, along with which there was a special kind of kondakar singing.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what the "Old Russian state" is in other dictionaries:

Kievan Rus state of the 9th early 12th centuries. in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs of Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements ... ... Political science. Dictionary.

State in East. Europe, which arose in the last quarter. 9th c. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs of Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements in the area of ​​​​St. Ladoga, Gnezdovo, etc.) ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

OLD RUSSIAN STATE, a state in Eastern Europe; arose in the last quarter of the ninth century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs of Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as the lands located ... ... Russian history

During the VI-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of class formation and the creation of the prerequisites for feudalism. The territory on which the ancient Russian statehood began to take shape was located at the intersection of the paths along which the migration of peoples and tribes took place, nomadic routes ran. The southern Russian steppes were the scene of an endless struggle of moving tribes and peoples. Often Slavic tribes attacked the border regions of the Byzantine Empire.

In the 7th century in the steppes between the Lower Volga, the Don and the North Caucasus, a Khazar state was formed. Slavic tribes in the regions of the Lower Don and Azov fell under his dominion, retaining, however, a certain autonomy. The territory of the Khazar kingdom extended to the Dnieper and the Black Sea. At the beginning of the 8th century the Arabs inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars, and deeply invaded the north through the North Caucasus, reaching the Don. A large number of Slavs - allies of the Khazars - were taken prisoner.

From the north, the Varangians (Normans, Vikings) penetrate into the Russian lands. At the beginning of the 8th century they settle around Yaroslavl, Rostov and Suzdal, establishing control over the territory from Novgorod to Smolensk. Part of the northern colonists penetrates into southern Russia, where they mix with the Rus, taking their name. In Tmutarakan, the capital of the Russian-Varangian Khaganate was formed, which ousted the Khazar rulers. In their struggle, the opponents turned to the Emperor of Constantinople for an alliance.

In such a complex ooetanovka, the consolidation of the Slavic tribes into political unions took place, which became the embryo of the formation of a single East Slavic statehood.

In the ninth century as a result of the centuries-old development of the East Slavic society, the early feudal state of Rus was formed with its center in Kyiv. Gradually, all the East Slavic tribes united in Kievan Rus.

The theme of the history of Kievan Rus considered in the work is not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years have passed under the sign of changes in many areas of Russian life. The way of life of many people has changed, the system of life values ​​has changed. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important for raising the national consciousness of Russians. A sign of the revival of the nation is the ever-increasing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, in its spiritual values.

FORMATION OF THE OLD RUSSIAN STATE IN THE IX CENTURY

The time from the 6th to the 9th centuries is still the last stage of the primitive communal system, the time of the formation of classes and the imperceptible, at first glance, but steady growth of the prerequisites of feudalism. The most valuable monument containing information about the beginning of the Russian state is the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years, where did the Russian land come from, and who in Kyiv began to reign first and where did the Russian land come from," compiled by the Kyiv monk Nestor around 1113.

Starting his story, like all medieval historians, with the Flood, Nestor tells about the settlement of Western and Eastern Slavs in Europe in antiquity. He divides the East Slavic tribes into two groups, the level of development of which, according to his description, was not the same. Some of them lived, in his words, in a “bestial way”, preserving the features of the tribal system: blood feud, remnants of matriarchy, the absence of marriage prohibitions, “kidnapping” (kidnapping) of wives, etc. Nestor contrasts these tribes with glades, in whose land Kyiv was built. Glades are "smart men", they have already established a patriarchal monogamous family and, obviously, blood feuds have been outlived (they are "distinguished by a meek and quiet disposition").

Next, Nestor tells how the city of Kyiv was created. Prince Kiy, who reigned there, according to Nestor's story, came to Constantinople to visit the emperor of Byzantium, who received him with great honors. Returning from Constantinople, Kiy built a city on the banks of the Danube, intending to settle here for a long time. But the locals were hostile to him, and Kiy returned to the banks of the Dnieper.

Nestor considered the formation of the Polyan principality in the Middle Dnieper region to be the first historical event on the path to the creation of the Old Russian states. The legend about Kii and his two brothers spread far to the south, and was even brought to Armenia.

Byzantine writers of the 6th century paint the same picture. During the reign of Justinian, huge masses of Slavs advanced to the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine historians colorfully describe the invasion of the empire by Slavic troops, who took away prisoners and rich booty, and the settlement of the empire by Slavic colonists. The appearance on the territory of Byzantium of the Slavs, who dominated communal relations, contributed to the eradication of the slave-owning order here and the development of Byzantium along the path from the slave-owning system to feudalism.

The successes of the Slavs in the fight against powerful Byzantium testify to the relatively high level of development of Slavic society for that time: material prerequisites for equipping significant military expeditions had already appeared, and the system of military democracy made it possible to unite large masses of Slavs. Distant campaigns contributed to the strengthening of the power of the princes in the indigenous Slavic lands, where tribal principalities were created.

Archaeological data fully confirm the words of Nestor that the core of the future Kievan Rus began to take shape on the banks of the Dnieper when the Slavic princes made trips to Byzantium and the Danube, in the times preceding the attacks of the Khazars (VII century).

The creation of a significant tribal union in the southern forest-steppe regions facilitated the advancement of the Slavic colonists not only in the southwest (to the Balkans), but also in the southeast direction. True, the steppes were occupied by various nomads: Bulgarians, Avars, Khazars, but the Slavs of the Middle Dnieper (Russian land) apparently managed to protect their possessions from their invasions and penetrate deep into the fertile black earth steppes. In the VII-IX centuries. Slavs also lived in the eastern part of the Khazar lands, somewhere in the Azov region, participated together with the Khazars in military campaigns, were hired to serve the kagan (Khazar ruler). In the south, the Slavs lived, apparently, as islands among other tribes, gradually assimilating them, but at the same time perceiving elements of their culture.

During the VI-IX centuries. productive forces were growing, tribal institutions were changing, and the process of class formation was going on. As the most important phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs during the VI-IX centuries. it should be noted the development of arable farming and the development of handicrafts; the disintegration of the tribal community as a labor collective and the separation of individual peasant farms from it, forming a neighboring community; the growth of private land ownership and the formation of classes; the transformation of the tribal army with its defensive functions into a squad that dominates the tribesmen; capture by princes and nobility of tribal land in personal hereditary property.

By the 9th century everywhere on the territory of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs, a significant area of ​​arable land cleared from the forest was formed, testifying to the further development of productive forces under feudalism. An association of small tribal communities, which is characterized by a certain unity of culture, was an ancient Slavic tribe. Each of these tribes gathered a national assembly (veche). The power of the tribal princes gradually increased. The development of intertribal ties, defensive and offensive alliances, the organization of joint campaigns and, finally, the subordination of weaker neighbors by strong tribes - all this led to the enlargement of the tribes, to their unification into larger groups.

Describing the time when the transition from tribal relations to the state took place, Nestor notes that in various East Slavic regions there were "their reigns." This is also confirmed by archeological data.

The formation of an early feudal state, which gradually subjugated all the East Slavic tribes, became possible only when the differences between the south and north were somewhat smoothed out in terms of agricultural conditions, when there was a sufficient amount of plowed land in the north and the need for hard collective labor for cutting and uprooting of the forest has decreased significantly. As a result, the peasant family emerged as a new production team from the patriarchal community.

The decomposition of the primitive communal system among the Eastern Slavs took place at a time when the slave-owning system had already outlived itself on a world-historical scale. In the process of class formation, Russia came to feudalism, bypassing the slaveholding formation.

In the IX-X centuries. antagonistic classes of feudal society are formed. The number of combatants is increasing everywhere, their differentiation is intensifying, there is a separation from their midst of the nobility - boyars and princes.

Important in the history of the emergence of feudalism is the question of the time of the appearance of cities in Russia. Under the conditions of the tribal system, there were certain centers where tribal councils met, a prince was chosen, trade was carried out, fortune-telling was carried out, court cases were decided, sacrifices were made to the gods and the most important dates of the year were celebrated. Sometimes such a center became the focus of the most important types of production. Most of these ancient centers later turned into medieval cities.

In the IX-X centuries. the feudal lords created a number of new cities, which served both for the purposes of defense against nomads and for the purposes of domination over the enslaved population. Handicraft production was also concentrated in the cities. The old name "city", "city", denoting a fortification, began to be applied to a real feudal city with a citadel-kremlin (fortress) in the center and an extensive craft and trading settlement.

With all the gradualness and slowness of the process of feudalization, one can still point out a certain line, starting from which there are grounds for talking about feudal relations in Russia. This line is the 9th century, when a feudal state was already formed among the Eastern Slavs.

The lands of the East Slavic tribes united into a single state were called Rus. The arguments of the "Norman" historians who tried to declare the founders of the Old Russian state the Normans, who were then called Varangians in Russia, are unconvincing. These historians stated that under Russia the chronicles meant the Varangians. But as has already been shown, the prerequisites for the formation of states among the Slavs developed over many centuries and by the 9th century. gave a noticeable result not only in the West Slavic lands, where the Normans never penetrated and where the Great Moravian state arose, but also in the East Slavic lands (in Kievan Rus), where the Normans appeared, robbed, destroyed representatives of local princely dynasties and sometimes became princes themselves. Obviously, the Normans could neither assist nor seriously interfere with the process of feudalization. The name Rus began to be used in sources in relation to part of the Slavs 300 years before the appearance of the Varangians.

For the first time, the mention of the people of Ros is found in the middle of the 6th century, when information about it had already reached Syria. The glades, called, according to the chronicler, Rus, become the basis of the future Old Russian people, and their land - the core of the territory of the future state - Kievan Rus.

Among the news belonging to Nestor, one passage has survived, which describes Russia before the appearance of the Varangians there. “These are the Slavic regions,” Nestor writes, “that are part of Russia - the glades, the Drevlyans, the Dregovichi, the Polochans, the Novgorod Slovenes, the northerners ...”2. This list includes only half of the East Slavic regions. The composition of Russia, therefore, at that time did not yet include the Krivichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Croats, Ulichi and Tivertsy. At the center of the new state formation was the Glade tribe. The Old Russian state became a kind of federation of tribes, in its form it was an early feudal monarchy

ANCIENT RUSSIA IN THE END OF THE IX - BEGINNING OF THE XII CENTURIES

In the second half of the ninth century Novgorod prince Oleg united in his hands the power over Kyiv and Novgorod. The chronicle dates this event to 882. The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) as a result of the emergence of antagonistic classes was a turning point in the history of the Eastern Slavs.

The process of unification of the East Slavic lands as part of the Old Russian state was complex. In a number of lands, the Kyiv princes met with serious resistance from local feudal and tribal princes and their "husbands". This resistance was crushed by force of arms. In the reign of Oleg (late IX - early X century), a constant tribute was already levied from Novgorod and from the lands of the North Russian (Novgorod or Ilmen Slavs), Western Russian (Krivichi) and northeastern. Prince Igor of Kyiv (beginning of the 10th century), as a result of a stubborn struggle, subjugated the lands of the streets and Tivertsy. Thus, the border of Kievan Rus was advanced beyond the Dniester. A long struggle continued with the population of the Drevlyane land. Igor increased the amount of tribute levied from the Drevlyans. During one of Igor's campaigns in the Drevlyane land, when he decided to collect a double tribute, the Drevlyans defeated the prince's squad and killed Igor. During the reign of Olga (945-969), Igor's wife, the land of the Drevlyans was finally subordinated to Kyiv.

The territorial growth and strengthening of Russia continued under Svyatoslav Igorevich (969-972) and Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). The composition of the Old Russian state included the lands of the Vyatichi. The power of Russia spread to the North Caucasus. The territory of the Old Russian state also expanded to the west, including the cities of Cherven and Carpathian Rus.

With the formation of the early feudal state, more favorable conditions were created for maintaining the security of the country and its economic growth. But the strengthening of this state was connected with the development of feudal property and the further enslavement of the previously free peasantry.

The supreme power in the Old Russian state belonged to the great Kievan prince. At the princely court there lived a squad, divided into "senior" and "junior". The boyars from the prince's combat comrades-in-arms turn into landowners, his vassals, and estates. In the XI-XII centuries. there is a registration of the boyars as a special estate and the consolidation of its legal status. Vassalage is formed as a system of relations with the prince-suzerain; its characteristic features are the specialization of the vassal service, the contractual nature of relations and the economic independence of the vassal4.

The princely combatants took part in the administration of the state. So, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, together with the boyars, discussed the issue of introducing Christianity, measures to combat "robbery" and decided other matters. In some parts of Russia, their own princes ruled. But the great Kyiv prince sought to replace the local rulers with his proteges.

The state helped to strengthen the rule of the feudal lords in Russia. The apparatus of power ensured the flow of tribute, collected in money and in kind. The working population also performed a number of other duties - military, underwater, participated in the construction of fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. Individual princely combatants received entire regions in control with the right to collect tribute.

In the middle of the X century. under Princess Olga, the sizes of duties (tributes and quitrents) were determined and temporary and permanent camps and churchyards were established in which tribute was collected.

The norms of customary law developed among the Slavs from ancient times. With the emergence and development of class society and the state, along with customary law and gradually replacing it, written laws appeared and developed to protect the interests of the feudal lords. Already in Oleg's treaty with Byzantium (911), "Russian law" is mentioned. The collection of written laws is the "Russian Truth" of the so-called "Short Edition" (end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century). In its composition, the “Ancient Truth” was preserved, apparently written down at the beginning of the 11th century, but reflecting some norms of customary law. It also speaks of the survivals of primitive communal relations, for example, blood feuds. The law considers cases of replacing revenge with a fine in favor of the relatives of the victim (subsequently in favor of the state).

The armed forces of the Old Russian state consisted of the retinue of the Grand Duke, the retinues, which were brought by the princes and boyars subordinate to him, and the people's militia (wars). The number of troops with which the princes went on campaigns sometimes reached 60-80 thousand. An important role in the armed forces continued to be played by the foot militia. In Russia, detachments of mercenaries were also used - nomads of the steppes (Pechenegs), as well as Polovtsy, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Czechs, Poles, Norman Varangians, but their role in the armed forces was insignificant. The ancient Russian fleet consisted of ships hollowed out of trees and sheathed with boards along the sides. Russian ships sailed the Black, Azov, Caspian and Baltic seas.

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The foreign policy of the Old Russian state expressed the interests of the growing class of feudal lords, who expanded their possessions, political influence and trade relations. In an effort to conquer individual East Slavic lands, the Kyiv princes came into conflict with the Khazars. The advance to the Danube, the desire to master the trade route along the Black Sea and the Crimean coast led to the struggle of the Russian princes with Byzantium, which tried to limit the influence of Russia in the Black Sea region. In 907 Prince Oleg organized a campaign by sea against Constantinople. The Byzantines were forced to ask the Russians to make peace and pay an indemnity. According to the peace treaty of 911. Russia received the right of duty-free trade in Constantinople.

The Kyiv princes undertook campaigns to more distant lands - beyond the Caucasus Range, to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (campaigns of 880, 909, 910, 913-914). The expansion of the territory of the Kyiv state began to be carried out especially actively under the reign of the son of Princess Olga, Svyatoslav (campaigns of Svyatoslav - 964-972). He dealt the first blow to the Khazar empire. Their main cities on the Don and Volga were captured. Svyatoslav even planned to settle in this region, becoming the successor to the empire he had destroyed6.

Then the Russian squads marched to the Danube, where they captured the city of Pereyaslavets (formerly owned by the Bulgarians), which Svyatoslav decided to make his capital. Such political ambitions show that the princes of Kyiv did not yet associate the idea of ​​the political center of their empire with Kyiv.

The danger that came from the East - the invasion of the Pechenegs, forced the Kyiv princes to pay more attention to the internal structure of their own state.

ACCEPTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY IN RUSSIA

At the end of the tenth century Christianity was officially introduced in Russia. The development of feudal relations prepared for the replacement of pagan cults by a new religion.

Eastern Slavs deified the forces of nature. Among the gods revered by them, the first place was occupied by Perun - the god of thunder and lightning. Dazhd-bog was the god of the sun and fertility, Stribog was the god of thunder and bad weather. Volos was considered the god of wealth and trade, the creator of all human culture - the blacksmith god Svarog.

Christianity began to penetrate early into Russia among the nobility. Even in the IX century. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople noted that Russia had changed "pagan superstition" to "Christian faith"7. Christians were among Igor's warriors. Princess Olga converted to Christianity.

Vladimir Svyatoslavich, having been baptized in 988 and appreciating the political role of Christianity, decided to make it the state religion in Russia. The adoption of Christianity by Russia took place in a difficult foreign policy situation. In the 80s of the X century. the Byzantine government turned to the prince of Kyiv with a request for military assistance to suppress uprisings in subject lands. In response, Vladimir demanded an alliance with Russia from Byzantium, offering to seal it with his marriage to Anna, the sister of Emperor Basil II. The Byzantine government was forced to agree to this. After the marriage of Vladimir and Anna, Christianity was officially recognized as the religion of the Old Russian state.

Church institutions in Russia received large land grants and tithes from state revenues. During the 11th century Bishoprics were founded in Yuryev and Belgorod (in the land of Kyiv), Novgorod, Rostov, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, Vladimir-Volynsky, Polotsk and Turov. Several large monasteries arose in Kyiv.

The people met with hostility the new faith and its ministers. Christianity was forcibly planted, and the Christianization of the country dragged on for several centuries. Pre-Christian (“pagan”) cults continued to live among the people for a long time.

The introduction of Christianity was an advance over paganism. Together with Christianity, the Russians received some elements of a higher Byzantine culture, joined, like other European peoples, to the heritage of antiquity. The introduction of a new religion increased the international significance of ancient Russia.

DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL RELATIONS IN RUSSIA

Time from the end of the X to the beginning of the XII century. is an important stage in the development of feudal relations in Russia. This time is characterized by the gradual victory of the feudal mode of production over a large area of ​​the country.

The agriculture of Russia was dominated by sustainable field farming. Cattle breeding developed more slowly than agriculture. Despite a relative increase in agricultural production, harvests were low. Shortage and famine were frequent occurrences, undermining the Kresgyap economy and contributing to the enslavement of the peasants. Hunting, fishing, and beekeeping remained of great importance in the economy. Furs of squirrels, martens, otters, beavers, sables, foxes, as well as honey and wax went to the foreign market. The best hunting and fishing areas, forests with side lands were seized by feudal lords.

In the 11th and early 12th centuries part of the land was exploited by the state by collecting tribute from the population, part of the land area was in the hands of individual feudal lords as estates that could be inherited (later they became known as estates), and possessions received from the princes in temporary conditional holding.

The ruling class of feudal lords was formed from local princes and boyars, who fell into dependence on Kyiv, and from the husbands (combatants) of the Kyiv princes, who received land, “tortured” by them and the princes, into administration, possession or patrimony. The Kievan Grand Dukes themselves had large land holdings. The distribution of land by the princes to combatants, while strengthening feudal production relations, was at the same time one of the means used by the state to subjugate the local population to its power.

Land property was protected by law. The growth of boyar and ecclesiastical landownership was closely connected with the development of immunity. The land, which used to be peasant property, fell into the ownership of the feudal lord “with tribute, virs and sales”, that is, with the right to collect taxes and court fines from the population for murder and other crimes, and, consequently, with the right to court.

With the transfer of land into the ownership of individual feudal lords, the peasants fell into dependence on them in various ways. Some peasants, deprived of the means of production, were enslaved by the landowners, using their need for tools, implements, seeds, etc. Other peasants, who were sitting on land subject to tribute, who owned their tools of production, were forced by the state to transfer their land under the patrimonial power of the feudal lords. With the expansion of estates and the enslavement of smerds, the term servants, which previously denoted slaves, began to spread to the entire mass of the peasantry dependent on the landowner.

Peasants who fell into bondage to the feudal lord, legally formalized by a special agreement - nearby, were called purchases. They received from the landowner a plot of land and a loan, which they worked out in the feudal lord's household with the master's inventory. For escaping from the master, the zakuns turned into serfs - slaves deprived of any rights. Labor rent - corvee, field and castle (construction of fortifications, bridges, roads, etc.), was combined with natural quitrent.

The forms of social protest of the masses against the feudal system were varied: from fleeing from their owner to armed “robbery”, from violating the boundaries of feudal estates, setting fire to the side trees belonging to the princes, to open rebellion. The peasants fought against the feudal lords and with weapons in their hands. Under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, “robbery” (as the armed uprisings of the peasants were often called at that time) became a common phenomenon. In 996, Vladimir, on the advice of the clergy, decided to apply the death penalty to the "robbers", but then, having strengthened the apparatus of power and, needing new sources of income to support the squad, he replaced the execution with a fine - vira. The princes paid even more attention to the struggle against popular movements in the 11th century.

At the beginning of the XII century. further development of the craft took place. In the countryside, under the dominance of natural economy, the manufacture of clothing, footwear, utensils, agricultural implements, etc., was a domestic production that had not yet separated from agriculture. With the development of the feudal system, part of the communal artisans became dependent on the feudal lords, others left the village and went under the walls of princely castles and fortresses, where handicraft settlements were created. The possibility of a break between the artisan and the countryside was due to the development of agriculture, which was able to provide the urban population with food, and the beginning of the separation of handicrafts from agriculture.

Cities became centers for the development of handicrafts. In them by the XII century. There were over 60 handicraft specialties. Russian artisans of the XI-XII centuries. produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products, their products played an important role in the development of trade relations between the city and the countryside. Old Russian jewelers knew the art of minting non-ferrous metals. In craft workshops, tools, weapons, household items, and jewelry were made.

With its products, Russia won fame in what was then Europe. However, the social division of labor in the country as a whole was weak. The village lived by subsistence farming. The penetration of small retail traders into the countryside from the city did not disturb the natural character of the rural economy. Cities were the centers of internal trade. But urban commodity production did not change the natural economic basis of the country's economy.

The foreign trade of Russia was more developed. Russian merchants traded in the possessions of the Arab Caliphate. The Dnieper path connected Russia with Byzantium. Russian merchants traveled from Kyiv to Moravia, the Czech Republic, Poland, South Germany, from Novgorod and Polotsk - along the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, the Polish Pomerania and further to the west. With the development of handicrafts, the export of handicraft products increased.

Silver bars and foreign coins were used as money. Princes Vladimir Svyatoslavich and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich issued (albeit in small quantities) minted silver coins. However, foreign trade did not change the natural character of the Russian economy.

With the growth of the social division of labor, cities developed. They arose from fortresses-castles, gradually overgrown with settlements, and from trade and craft settlements, around which fortifications were erected. The city was connected with the nearest rural district, the products of which he lived and the population of which he served with handicrafts. In chronicles of the IX-X centuries. 25 cities are mentioned, in the news of the 11th century -89. The heyday of ancient Russian cities falls on the XI-XII centuries.

Craft and merchant associations arose in the cities, although the guild system did not develop here. In addition to free artisans, patrimonial artisans, who were serfs of princes and boyars, also lived in the cities. The urban nobility was the boyars. The large cities of Russia (Kyiv, Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk, etc.) were administrative, judicial and military centers. At the same time, having grown stronger, the cities contributed to the process of political fragmentation. This was a natural phenomenon in the conditions of the dominance of subsistence farming and the weakness of economic ties between individual lands.

PROBLEMS OF STATE UNITY OF RUSSIA

The state unity of Russia was not strong. The development of feudal relations and the strengthening of the power of the feudal lords, as well as the growth of cities as centers of local principalities, led to changes in the political superstructure. In the XI century. the Grand Duke still stood at the head of the state, but the princes and boyars dependent on him acquired large land holdings in different parts of Russia (in Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Volhynia, etc.). The princes of individual feudal centers strengthened their own apparatus of power and, relying on local feudal lords, began to regard their reigns as ancestral, that is, hereditary possessions. Economically, they almost did not depend on Kyiv, on the contrary, the Kyiv prince was interested in their support. Political dependence on Kyiv weighed heavily on local feudal lords and princes who ruled in certain parts of the country.

After the death of Vladimir in Kyiv, his son Svyatopolk became prince, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb and began a stubborn struggle with Yaroslav. In this struggle, Svyatopolk used the military assistance of the Polish feudal lords. Then a mass popular movement against the Polish invaders began in the Kyiv land. Yaroslav, supported by Novgorod citizens, defeated Svyatopolk and occupied Kyiv.

During the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich, nicknamed the Wise (1019-1054), around 1024, a great uprising of smerds broke out in the northeast, in the Suzdal land. The reason for it was severe hunger. Many participants in the suppressed uprising were imprisoned or executed. However, the movement continued until 1026.

During the reign of Yaroslav, the strengthening and further expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state continued. However, the signs of the feudal fragmentation of the state became more and more distinct.

After the death of Yaroslav, state power passed to his three sons. Seniority belonged to Izyaslav, who owned Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities. His co-rulers were Svyatoslav (who ruled in Chernigov and Tmutarakan) and Vsevolod (who reigned in Rostov, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl). In 1068, nomadic Polovtsy attacked Russia. Russian troops were defeated on the Alta River. Izyaslav and Vsevolod fled to Kyiv. This hastened the anti-feudal uprising in Kyiv, which had long been brewing. The rebels defeated the princely court, released from prison and elevated to the reign of Vseslav of Polotsk, previously (during the inter-princely strife) imprisoned by his brothers. However, he soon left Kyiv, and Izyaslav a few months later, with the help of Polish troops, resorting to deceit, again occupied the city (1069) and committed a bloody massacre.

Urban uprisings were associated with the movement of the peasantry. Since the anti-feudal movements were also directed against the Christian church, the rebellious peasants and townspeople were sometimes led by wise men. In the 70s of the XI century. there was a major popular movement in the Rostov land. Popular movements also took place in other places in Russia. In Novgorod, for example, the masses of the urban population, led by the Magi, opposed the nobility, headed by a prince and a bishop. Prince Gleb, with the help of military force, dealt with the rebels.

The development of the feudal mode of production inevitably led to the political fragmentation of the country. Class contradictions intensified noticeably. The ruin from exploitation and princely strife was exacerbated by the consequences of crop failures and famine. After the death of Svyatopolk in Kyiv, there was an uprising of the urban population and peasants from the surrounding villages. Frightened, the nobility and the merchants invited Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), Prince of Pereyaslavsky, to reign in Kyiv. The new prince was forced to make some concessions in order to suppress the uprising.

Vladimir Monomakh pursued a policy of strengthening the grand ducal power. Owning, in addition to Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Suzdal, Rostov, ruling Novgorod and part of Southwestern Russia, he simultaneously tried to subjugate other lands (Minsk, Volyn, etc.). However, contrary to the policy of Monomakh, the process of fragmentation of Russia, caused by economic reasons, continued. By the second quarter of the XII century. Russia finally fragmented into many principalities.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT RUSSIA

The culture of ancient Russia is the culture of the early feudal society. Oral poetic creativity reflected the life experience of the people, captured in proverbs and sayings, in the rituals of agricultural and family holidays, from which the cult pagan beginning gradually disappeared, the rites turned into folk games. Buffoons - wandering actors, singers and musicians, who came from the people's environment, were the bearers of democratic trends in art. Folk motifs formed the basis of the remarkable song and musical creativity of the "prophetic Boyan", whom the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" calls "the nightingale of the old time."

The growth of national self-consciousness found a particularly vivid expression in the historical epic epic. In it, the people idealized the time of the political unity of Russia, although still very fragile, when the peasants were not yet dependent. In the image of the "peasant son" Ilya Muromets, a fighter for the independence of the motherland, the deep patriotism of the people is embodied. Folk art had an impact on the traditions and legends that developed in the feudal secular and ecclesiastical environment, and helped the formation of ancient Russian literature.

The appearance of writing was of great importance for the development of ancient Russian literature. In Russia, writing arose, apparently, quite early. The news has been preserved that the Slavic enlightener of the 9th century. Konstantin (Cyril) saw in Chersonese books written in "Russian characters". Evidence of the existence of written language among the Eastern Slavs even before the adoption of Christianity is an earthen vessel discovered in one of the Smolensk barrows of the beginning of the 10th century. with an inscription. Significant distribution of writing received after the adoption of Christianity.

What is a state? This is the administrative apparatus, which stood out from society and rose above it in order to protect its order. In the early Middle Ages, the signs of a nascent state were:

• the emergence of power, separated from the people;
• territorial sign of residence;
• collection of taxes by the center for the maintenance of the "administrative apparatus" and the defense of territories.

Starting from the 7th century the Slavic tribes merge with their territories of residence into larger tribal unions, the management of which is entrusted to the nobility of the tribes. After some time, a special caste appears in the tribal unions - the military, designed to protect the territory of the union.

At a certain historical moment, it became obvious that on the territories of the tribes of the ancient Slavs, the main prerequisites for the formation of the ancient Russian state:

• Tribal ties began to break down.
• The production method has improved and become more progressive.

By this time, feudal relations had arisen in their places of residence. Against the background of their formation, the emergence and took place, which was the result of contradictions between the newly emerging classes. Over time, the dominant role passes to the princes and their squads.

The first state of the ancient Slavs and its capitals

According to the records in the "Bavarian Chronograph" at the beginning of the 9th century, the Rusichs are perceived as one of the Khazar peoples living in the east of Europe, which included glades and northerners. By the end of the century, these ethnic groups were united in a political union, and on their territory, the ancient Russian state was created. But, since the new formation included the peoples of two groups, the capital of the ancient Russian state could not be located in one place: the clearing settled in Kyiv, and the northern tribes settled near about. Ilmen with its capital in Novgorod.

Formation of the Old Russian state

The further history of the appearance of the ancient Russian state on the map of Europe cannot be considered definitively reliable. About how it went the formation of the ancient Russian state briefly narrate two theories: Norman and autochthonous (Slavic).

Norman theory

In accordance with the work of that time - "The Tale of Bygone Years" - three brothers from the Varangian princes were called to rule with the northerners. These brothers were Rurik, who arrived in Novgorod, Sineus, who arrived in Belozero, Truvor, who took the throne of Izborsk. Rurik turned out to be the most energetic and, after three years, he united these principalities under his command. According to the sources of those times, this happened in 862, but it was not yet the emergence of the ancient Russian state. After 20 years, the Novgorod prince Oleg, in the process of expanding his lands, conquered Kyiv with the surrounding territories and united everything under his rule. Based on this, it is considered that the formation of the ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus happened in 882.

However, this theory is doubtful, since at the time of the arrival of the Varangian princes on the territory of the Slavs, the latter had all the prerequisites for the emergence of their statehood.

1. The ancient Slavs had warriors organized into squads.
2. They already lived in tribal unions, which speaks of the birth of the state.
3. The economy was well developed: there was trade, there was a division of labor.

Noteworthy is the fact that in the early Middle Ages it was customary to invite neutral princes from distant lands to restore order, and this case was not the only one in the history of those times.

Autochthonous theory

According to the autochthonous theory, formation of the ancient Russian state occurred due to the prevailing objective economic and political conditions. As a consequence of the developed situation, the emergence of a Slavic state was bound to occur.

Comparing historical sources, it can be seen that the Eastern Slavs had a more developed political system, unlike the Normans, and their own statehood. They have already passed the path of long-term development and the formation of the prerequisites for the emergence of statehood. That's why the emergence and development of the ancient Russian state was the logical conclusion of the next stage of socio-economic relations.

Moments of the formation of the ancient Russian state

In the period after the formation of Kievan Rus, there was formation of the ancient Russian state. At this time, power in the cities quickly passes to the princes, who, having a repressive apparatus - a squad, seek to influence the political life in them. Under these conditions, the class of the military quickly becomes significant, one of the functions of which is to intimidate and induce the inhabitants of the principalities to commit acts beneficial to the princes. Taxes from the population are beginning to be collected systematically by trusted people of the princes. From Byzantium comes a new religion, which very quickly becomes mandatory for everyone. The last moment in the approval of the state apparatus was the legitimization of the principles of inheritance of power.

As a result, at the end of the 10th century, an ancient Russian state arose in the area where the Slavs lived - from the Carpathians to the Don steppes and between the Black and White Seas. It existed until the Tatar-Mongol invasion, which occurred in the middle of the XIII century.

The political system of Kievan Rus

Politically, the ancient Russian state had a system, the basis of which was a mixed type of government, which had two components:

• monarchical (the central authority is the prince);
• democratic (veche).

During the time of the Rurikids, the princes owned volosts around the main cities, the management of which was entrusted to representatives of their family. In Kievan Rus, the right of inheritance by father was introduced, according to which the prince endowed each son with a part of his lands - a volost, where the young prince later lived and ruled.

By virtue of this, political system of the ancient Russian state was based on members of the same clan, who in the future would inevitably move away and start a struggle for possession of the central lands.

The collapse of the state of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus began to be divided into specific principalities during the time of Yaroslav the Wise. Vladimir Monomakh, by the power of his authority, was able to stop this process, however, only for the duration of his reign. With his active participation, around 1097, a congress of county princes was held in Lübeck, the main task of which was to stop strife between the princes and collapse of the ancient Russian state. At the congress, the princes agreed:

• Stop internecine wars.
• They proclaimed the principle of inheritance: "Princes have the right to reign exclusively in those lands owned by their fathers."

This principle of inheritance later showed that the congress in Lübeck legitimized the further fragmentation of the ancient Russian state. Gradually, it turned out that it was more and more difficult to establish priorities in inheritance among relatives each time. The once great principalities began to be divided into destinies, which very quickly began to become impoverished. The power of such princes was less and less considered. Then the governors in the remote princely territories began to take political power into their own hands.

The once great state of Kievan Rus at the end of the 12th century was mortally sick. And, as subsequent history showed, it was possible to overcome it only against the backdrop of a huge common misfortune that swept over the ancient Russian state in the middle of the 13th century.

How the Russian Empire was created. Baptism of Russia-988.