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Modern methods and systems of water purification in domestic conditions. Modern methods of water purification Which method of water purification is the most effective

The life of both man and all mankind. That is why modern science is constantly working on the creation of new methods of purification.

The methods primarily depend on the quantity and quality of the liquid to be purified. For example, some methods are used in industry, but at home, running water can be purified in a completely different way.

Industrial methods of water treatment

Water taken from reservoirs or underground sources passes through before entering the water supply. These methods are also used in the treatment of wastewater, which are an integral part of the work of any industrial plant or factory.

Mechanical methods of water purification. The very name of the method indicates what kind of goal is being pursued here. With the help of various filters, water is purified from unnecessary and harmful particles. To begin with, the liquid enters the surface of the filter, from where it passes through the entire boot in such a way that particles of a certain size are retained. But if using this method you can get rid of relatively large pollutants, then filters cannot save you from bacteria and small organic particles.
Water chlorination. A fairly well-known purification method that allows you to disinfect water. But this technique also has its drawback, which everyone knows about. Drinking such water is simply impossible.
Ozonation. A relatively new and fairly effective way to purify water, which allows you to get rid of organic residues. Ozone is also considered a very strong disinfectant. Unfortunately, this method is quite expensive and is just beginning to catch on.

Unfortunately, the water that houses and apartments are provided with is not always of high quality. That is why you need to think about how to make it better at home.

Methods at home

As a rule, there are some problems with water flowing from the tap. Firstly, it contains magnesium and calcium salts, which make it tough. Another danger is the presence of unnecessary organic decay products, including nitrites and ammonia. Also, the water may contain impurities of iron and manganese - such a liquid acquires a yellowish color. Most often, rust deposits in water are the result of rust moving through old pipes. And, of course, one of the main problems is chlorine.

But water can be purified and made usable on its own. There are several very effective and common ways.

Settling. In order for the water to become clean, it must be placed in a container and allowed to stand for at least a day. During this time, approximately 90% of the chlorine will evaporate from the liquid. If a reddish precipitate has formed at the bottom, the water must be filtered. But this method will not work if the liquid is saturated with bacteria and microscopic algae.
Boiling. This method allows you to significantly soften the water, since magnesium and calcium salts simply settle on the walls of the dishes. During boiling, all chlorine will disappear from the liquid. In addition, high temperatures will help destroy most of the living microorganisms. But if there is a high level of organic substances in the water, it cannot be boiled, since nitrogen compounds will quickly react with chlorine.
Household filters for water purification. Today we offer a huge selection of a wide variety of filters. The work of passive filters is based on simple filtration, when some of the polluting particles simply settle in the pores. By the way, as a filling for such a filter, they often use

There are also active filters containing a certain number of substances. These substances, when passing through water, react with pollutants, thus neutralizing them.

It is worth noting that the water filter must be chosen very carefully. First of all, be guided by the problem of your water, whether it be hardness or the presence of organic matter.

There is no life without water. A person is ⅔ water. During our life we drink about 75 tons of water. At the same time, we drink 80% of our diseases, said Louis Pasteur. According to the World Health Organization, 85% of known diseases are transmitted by water, causing 25 million deaths each year. In addition, polluted water accelerates the aging process by 30%.

According to the former director-general of the World Health Organization, Gro Harlem Brundtland, many cases of illness and death could be avoided with inexpensive and affordable water treatment.

Of course, you can drink tap water, but it is hardly necessary - every schoolchild knows about this today. City water usually contains a lot of mechanical and chemical contaminants. There are many bacteria and viruses in the water. For example, if a person continues to drink water with an excess of iron for a long time, he can get liver disease. The water we use contains a lot of calcium and magnesium salts. This makes the water especially hard. The use of such water is bad for both household appliances and the human body. Unfortunately, sanitary standards require that water treatment plants must add chlorine to disinfect water, which also negatively affects health.

Boiling alone cannot solve the problem of water purification - far from all the “additives” contained in it settle in the form of limescale on the walls of the kettle. It is worth imagining that something similar accumulates in our body in order to stop consuming unpurified water once and for all. To avoid such a problem, you need to take care of complete water purification.

What water to use?

Some buy bottled drinking water. Bottled water is varied in composition. And before making a choice in favor of a particular brand, you need to carefully look at what they offer you and for what money. Mineral water, for example, is better to use as prescribed by a doctor. But unfortunately there are a lot of low-quality manufacturers and fakes on the market, there is an opinion that up to a third of the bottles sold in Russia are not high-quality water!

In this state of affairs, consumers have to learn to recognize fake water, relying only on themselves. If this is table water, then it should not have any smell, there should not be a film on top, there should not be sediment. True, we must remember that there are medicinal waters in which a small sediment is allowed.
The technology for the production of fake mineral water is very simple: water is taken from the tap, iodine, salt and soda are added to give it a specific taste, and then carbonated in cheap saturators (something like a large siphon).

The first sign of a fake is a low price. Wholesale fake is offered 15-20% cheaper than the original, and retail prices for it are about 5% lower than for real mineral water. So if you come across water at prices below the average market, you should be wary: most likely, it got into a bottle from a tap.

You should also pay attention to the date of release of water: the original products are not stale in warehouses, and if the mineral water was released more than six months ago, this is probably a fake. Since it is more difficult to counterfeit glass containers, fake mineral water is most often bottled in plastic containers.

Another important point: before buying mineral water, you need to learn how to read the label. For example, if Caucasian water is bottled in Tula, then this is not Caucasian water, but Tula. Each label must correctly indicate the composition of the water and the number of the well, the address and telephone number for contacting the manufacturer. And, finally, if the label is pale, poorly printed or carelessly pasted, its quality is fully consistent with the quality of the content.

Household water treatment methods

People use different methods to purify water at home. However, not everyone knows how to properly implement them and what side effects may occur.

All methods of water purification can be conditionally divided into two groups: purification without the use of filters and purification using filters.

Water purification without filters

This option is the most common and affordable, since water purification does not require the purchase of additional devices, except for ordinary kitchen utensils.

Boiling

We all know from childhood that you can’t drink raw water, but only boiled water. Boiling is used to destroy organic matter (viruses, bacteria, microorganisms, etc.), remove chlorine and other low-temperature gases (radon, ammonia, etc.). Boiling does help to purify the water to some extent, but this process has a number of side effects. The first is that when boiling, the structure of water changes, i.e. it becomes “dead”, since oxygen evaporates. The more we boil water, the more pathogens die in it, but the more it becomes useless for the human body. Secondly, since water evaporates during boiling, the concentration of salts in it increases. They are deposited on the walls of the kettle in the form of scale and lime and enter the human body during the subsequent consumption of water from the kettle.

As you know, salts tend to accumulate in the body, which leads to a variety of diseases, ranging from joint diseases, the formation of kidney stones and petrification (cirrhosis) of the liver, and ending with arteriosclerosis, heart attack, and more. etc. In addition, many viruses can easily endure boiling water, since much higher temperatures are required to kill them. Also note that only chlorine gas is removed when water is boiled. In laboratory studies, it has been confirmed that after boiling tap water, additional chloroform is formed (causes cancer), even if the water was freed from chloroform by purging with an inert gas before boiling.

Conclusion. After boiling, we drink "dead" water, in which there is a fine suspension and mechanical particles, salts of heavy metals, chlorine and organochlorine (chloroform), viruses.

settling

Settling is used to remove chlorine from water and settling of large particles. As a rule, for this, tap water is poured into a large bucket and left in it for several hours. Without stirring the water in the bucket, the removal of chlorine gas occurs from about ⅓ of the depth from the water surface. It is this layer that is then used for consumption.

Conclusion. The efficiency of this method of water purification leaves much to be desired. After settling, it is necessary to boil water.

Freezing

This method is used for effective water purification by means of its recrystallization. It is much more efficient than boiling and even distillation (the process of obtaining distilled water), since phenol, chlorophenols and light organochlorines (a number of chlorine-containing compounds are the worst poison) are distilled along with water vapor.

Freezing is based on the chemical law, according to which, when a liquid freezes, the base substance crystallizes first in the coldest place, and lastly, in the least cold place, everything that was dissolved in the base substance solidifies. This phenomenon can be observed on the example of a candle. In an extinguished candle, away from the wick, pure transparent paraffin is obtained, and in the middle, where the wick burned, soot collects and the wax turns dirty. All liquid substances obey this law.

At home, water purification by freezing can be organized very simply. Pick up an enamel pan that fits with a lid into your refrigerator freezer. The main thing is that the volume of the pan should be at least 1 liter, since in a smaller volume the process of separating pure ice and dirty unfrozen water is unlikely to take place.

Fill the pot with water. Cover the pot with a lid so that there is a two-finger gap between the lid and the water. Then the cold will penetrate into the pan from below and from the sides, so that under the lid the water will not have time to freeze in 24 hours, and if it does, it will be the last thing. The pan should be kept in the freezer for so long that the water has time to freeze about half (for a 3-liter pan, this is just a day).

When you pull out a pot of half-frozen water, you will see for yourself that the ice is as clear as a diamond around the edges, and that the unfrozen water in the middle is so dirty that it resembles tea in color. The ice above this dirty water is not very clean and is pierced even with a finger. This ice must be cut with a knife and drained of all dirty water. If you pulled out the pan late, so that the water froze completely, then take a kettle with boiling water and pour a stream into the middle of the pan - boiling water will “wash” all the dirty ice from the middle in half a minute, leaving a round of pure ice. Leave clean ice to thaw.

Water purification using filters

Modern filters for water purification mainly use ozonation methods, the use of active silver and activated carbon, iodization, ultraviolet, ozonation and reverse osmosis.

Water ozonation

Water ozonation as a water treatment technology is popular in Western countries. The principle of operation of ozone during purification is as follows: the molecules of this reactive form of oxygen penetrate the cell membranes of organic substances and quickly oxidize them. This causes the cell death of the microorganism. Water treatment with ozone improves the taste of water and eliminates unpleasant odors.

The use of active silver

The cleansing properties of silver have been used by man since time immemorial. Once upon a time, water was simply kept for some time in silver vessels, it was believed that after that the water was completely disinfected. The modern use of silver for water treatment is to combine silver ions with the shell of bacteria. This method, however, has opponents who argue that since silver is a heavy metal, this kind of purification is dangerous for the human body. To date, silver is also used for long-term storage of initially pure water.

Activated carbon

Activated carbon is a sorption reagent (from Latin sorbeo - I absorb) water purification to remove chlorine, odors and colors from water. Due to its high sorption capacity, activated carbon effectively absorbs residual chlorine, dissolved gases, and organic compounds from water. The porous structure of activated carbon and, as a result, a large surface area, ensures its high efficiency.

iodination

Iodization is a commonly used method of water purification in swimming pools. In addition, specially designed iodine tablets are convenient for disinfecting water in field conditions, for example, by drawing water from an old rural well or a spring that is crystal clear at first glance.

Treatment of water with ultraviolet rays or by means of an ultraviolet membrane is recognized as one of the most effective methods of water treatment. The technology of water disinfection using ultraviolet light consists in the passage of special photochemical reactions, as a result of which the cells of microorganisms in the water are seriously damaged and the bacteria die.

Reverse osmosis is a method of water purification, previously used only for desalination of sea water. At the moment, advanced reverse osmosis treatment provides hundreds of thousands of tons of drinking water per day around the world. Based on reverse osmosis systems, household water filters are produced, which are one of the most efficient and reliable water treatment plants. What is the principle of operation of reverse osmosis systems? The main cleaning element of these systems is a semi-permeable membrane, which is able to pass through itself only water molecules, but at the same time prevents the penetration of substances with larger molecules (heavy metal salts, impurities, rust). As a result of purification by reverse osmosis, water and substances dissolved in it are separated at the molecular level, while almost perfectly pure water accumulates on one side of the membrane, and all impurities remain on its other side. So, reverse osmosis provides a much higher degree of purification than most traditional filtration methods. The reverse osmosis membrane is capable of removing organic matter from water. The large size of viruses and bacteria also virtually eliminates the possibility of their penetration through the membrane.

Modern household filters

Before you install a filter in your home, you must understand why you are doing it. That is, what result are you waiting for! Today, there are a lot of filters that differ in configuration and methods of use.

Low Filters - Faucet and Pitcher Heads

This category includes simple cleaning filters with a small resource; as a rule, this is a purification from mechanical impurities and from chlorine dissolved in water. The cartridge resource of such filters is very small - on average it is enough (for 3-4 people) for a period of 15-45 days (the more expensive the jug or nozzle, the better the cleaning and the longer the cartridge resource), after that the cartridge needs to be changed. They have a high cost and low quality of water purification.

Faucet nozzles

This category includes the simplest filters mounted on a water tap with a diameter of 15 to 20 mm. Purpose: post-treatment of tap water (used for drinking). The bulk of this kind of filters purifies water from mechanical impurities and chlorine. Although some manufacturers offer nozzle filters with cartridges containing an ion-exchange resin - capable of partially softening water (water softening has a very small resource - several tens of liters) and partially picking up heavy metal salts.

This category includes the simplest bulk type filters used for post-treatment of tap (prepared / disinfected) water. Principle of operation: the jug is divided into 2 parts (treated water is poured into the upper part, purified water accumulates in the lower part of the jug), water passes by gravity through the filter material (cartridge) while being purified from mechanical impurities, organochlorine compounds, and partly from heavy metals.

Filters of average degree of purification - 2nd, 3rd stage filters

These filters are designed to purify tap (prepared) water to the state of drinking water. A large assortment and variety of filters in this category allows us to divide them into several types, and they are distinguished based on the following parameters: the number of purification stages (mainly 2 and 3-stage water purification filters); differ in location, after their installation (lower location “under the sink”, upper location “on the table”); single-flask (one flask can contain both one and three stages of purification) and multi-flask (as a rule, no more than 3 flasks); also, since all filters of this category are flow filters (i.e., water is filtered through flow), another important factor is the method of connection to the pipeline. All filters in this category are cartridge filters (as a rule, the Slim Line (SL) - 10 standard is used), i.e., they require the replacement of a replaceable element after the cartridge life is exhausted.

2-stage filters: (usually 1st stage: mechanical cleaning, 2nd stage activated carbon cleaning)
3-stage filters: (usually 1st stage: mechanical cleaning, 2nd stage activated carbon cleaning, 3rd stage ion exchange resin, or pressed fine activated carbon enriched with one or more additives: silver, ion exchanger, crystals hexametaphosphate, etc.)

2, 3-stage filters: perfectly removed - mechanical impurities, chlorine, organochlorine compounds; partially removed - pesticides, iron, manganese, heavy metals, trichloromethane, oil-containing products, hardness salts, not removed - bacteria, viruses, chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, fluorides.
The cost and quality of water purification is average.

High purity filters - reverse osmosis, filters with ultra filtration membrane

The main filter element in high-purity filters is a membrane, in terms of purification quality, the best is the reverse osmosis method (the main filter element is a reverse osmosis membrane), followed by nanofiltration and ultrafiltration (ultra filtration membrane). The most widespread is the reverse osmosis method of water purification, as the most effective, and household reverse osmosis systems (RO systems) in Europe and North America are the most common household water purification filters. It is worth noting that almost all bottled drinking water is purified by reverse osmosis, and water purified by a household reverse osmosis filter will not differ from that sold under well-known brands ...

In addition to reverse osmosis filters, high purity filters include filters with an ultra filtration membrane. They are less common, but just as worthy of attention, especially since their cost is somewhat less than the cost of reverse osmosis filters.
The cost of such filters is low, and the quality of water purification is very high.

Filters with ultra filtration membrane

One of the methods of membrane water purification is cleaning with an ultra filtration membrane. Ultrafiltration membrane made of tubular composite removes all particles larger than 0.01 µm (micron), including bacteria, viruses, as well as dissolved salts of heavy metals, iron, mercury, arsenic, manganese, etc. The filter with an ultra filtration membrane is a flow filter with a capacity of ~ 150 - 200 liters / hour. Outwardly, such a filter is similar to a reverse osmosis filter, but still, reverse osmosis cleaning is finer (higher quality) than cleaning with an ultrafiltration membrane.

5 stage water purification system with ultra filtration membrane has the following purification stages:

1) The first stage is a preliminary mechanical cleaning cartridge (material: twisted or foamed polypropylene), designed to remove mechanical particles and suspensions with a diameter of up to 10 microns (microns).

2) The second stage - a cartridge containing granular activated carbon, removes chlorine and its compounds, organic substances, gases, improves taste.

3) The third stage is a cartridge based on compressed activated carbon (Carbon-Block), designed for post-treatment of water from organochlorine compounds and mechanical impurities up to 0.5 microns (micron).

4) The fourth stage is an ultra filtration membrane made of a tubular composite with a hole diameter of 0.1–0.01 microns. The membrane removes almost all organic pollutants, foreign impurities dissolved in water, salts of heavy metals, iron, mercury, arsenic, manganese, etc., as well as bacteria and viruses.

5) The fifth stage is an in-line cartridge based on coconut activated carbon, which removes odors and improves the taste of water.

In addition to the 5-stage system, there are filters with 4 stages of purification, in such filters there is no 3rd stage (cartridge based on compressed activated carbon (Carbon-Block)).

Reverse osmosis water filters

Reverse osmosis water filters produce the highest quality (complete) water purification at home. Such harmful substances as magnesium, mercury, nitrates, nitrites, strontium, arsenic, cyanide, asbestos, fluorine, lead, sulfates, iron, chlorine, … are removed from the water. etc…., all bacteria and viruses.
Household reverse osmosis filters are divided into flow reverse osmosis filters and storage. The main difference between flow and storage filters is the performance of the membranes.

In storage filters, the membrane performance is low (on average 150–300 liters per day (~ 0.1–0.15 liters per minute)), therefore, in such filters, a storage tank is simply needed in order to be able to accumulate a certain supply of clean water (usually 8–11 liters). Water is gradually filtered and accumulated in the tank, after the tank is filled, water filtration stops. The constant filling of the tank is automatically maintained by the filter, i.e. it turns out that in the storage filters there is always a supply of clean water of 8–11 liters.

In household reverse osmosis flow filters, high-performance membranes are installed (provided performance at the level of 1-2 liters per minute). In such filters, a storage tank is not needed. In terms of cost, flow filters are approximately 2–2.5 times more expensive than storage filters.

Both for reverse osmosis storage systems and for flow systems, an important indicator is the water pressure at the filter inlet (pipeline pressure). The pressure must be at least 2.8 atm. (in houses with centralized water supply, pressure below the specified one is quite rare, as a rule it is the upper (lower) floor or the historical center of the city with worn out pipelines), in case of lower pressure, an additional pressure increase pump is installed.

The most popular models of storage reverse osmosis filters:

a) 5-stage reverse osmosis filter (reverse osmosis system): 1st stage - preliminary purification from mechanical impurities ~ 15–30 microns (microns); 2nd stage - cleaning with activated carbon from chlorine and organochlorine compounds; 3rd stage - fine purification from mechanical impurities ~ 1–5 microns (microns) or additional purification with pressed activated carbon (this additional stage in a 5-stage filter allows you to better protect the membrane - which in turn will last longer); 4th stage - cleaning with a membrane (reverse osmosis method); 5th stage - carbon post-filter.

b) 5-stage reverse osmosis filter (reverse osmosis system) with a mineralizer: This filter has a mineralizer added. 1st stage - preliminary cleaning from mechanical impurities; 2nd stage - cleaning with activated carbon from chlorine and organochlorine compounds; 3rd stage - fine cleaning from mechanical impurities or additional cleaning with pressed activated carbon; 4th stage - cleaning with a membrane; 5th stage - carbon post-filter. + separate mineralizer, which allows you to balance the salt composition of water.

c) 5-stage reverse osmosis filter with a pressure increase pump (reverse osmosis system): in this filter, unlike 5-stage osmosis, only a pump is added - which must be used if the pressure of the water entering the treatment is less than 2.8 - 3 atm., in all other cases, the reverse osmosis filter can be used without a pump.

d) 4-stage reverse osmosis filter (reverse osmosis system): 1st stage - preliminary purification from mechanical impurities ~ 15–30 microns (microns); 2nd stage - cleaning with activated carbon from chlorine and organochlorine compounds; 3rd stage - cleaning with a membrane (reverse osmosis method); 4th stage - carbon post-filter.

Reverse osmosis filters are compact and easy to install in the kitchen under the sink, a separate tap for drinking water is installed on the sink (filters are equipped with everything necessary for connection).

Today, the problem of drinking water quality worries many people around the world. Due to the lack of clean drinking water and the regular use of poor quality water, more than five hundred million people in the world suffer from various diseases. For megacities, the problem of purity and quality of drinking water is especially relevant.

There are many causes of drinking water pollution. All these reasons are directly or indirectly related to water sources. Often, tap water is not of artesian origin, but is taken from available open surface sources. Each type of water source has its own characteristic causes that cause water pollution.

Many methods have been invented for the preliminary preparation of drinking water, as well as methods for its purification, which make it possible to obtain high-quality drinking water from almost any source.

Water purification is a special set of measures to remove various contaminants contained in it. Water purification is carried out at special water treatment facilities, as well as at home.

Water, before entering the tap of the end consumer, undergoes disinfection (most often with chlorine, less often ultraviolet irradiation units are used), and complex treatment at water treatment plants.

Consider the most common methods and methods of drinking water purification.

Drinking water treatment methods

Common methods of water preparation and purification:
- precipitation;
- clarification;
— membrane methods;
— chemical reagents for oxidation;
— adsorption;
- deferrization;
- softening;
- desalination;
— air conditioning;
- disinfection;
— removal of organic contaminants;
— dechlorination;
- removal of nitrates.

The main methods of water purification can be divided into:

mechanical,
biological,
chemical,
physical and chemical,
disinfection.

To mechanical methods include various types of water filtration or filtration, water straining, water settling. All these methods are relatively inexpensive and accessible, their main use is to separate various suspensions from water.

Membrane method of drinking water purification consists in the fact that water is passed through a semi-permeable partition, the openings of which are smaller than the particle size of contaminants.

At the core biological methods of water treatment lies the ability of microorganisms to decompose organic compounds. These methods are usually used to neutralize organic compounds dissolved in water.

By using chemical methods of water treatment neutralize various inorganic impurities. Wastewater is usually disinfected, discolored, neutralize the compounds dissolved in them with the help of chemical reagents.

Physical and chemical methods of water treatment used to neutralize colloidal impurities, dissolved compounds, purification from coarse and fine particles. These methods are characterized by high performance.

Adsorption- one of the physico-chemical methods of water purification. This is the process of so-called selective absorption by solid absorbers having a large specific surface of one or more components from a liquid medium. Various artificial or natural porous materials are used as adsorbents: active clays, peat, ash, coke breeze, silica gel, activated carbons, etc.

For the final purification and disinfection of water, mainly used:

Ultrafiltration;
Chlorination;
Ultraviolet radiation;
Ozonation;
Reagent-free methods of iron removal.

is the process of removing various mechanical and chemical impurities from water. Purification using this method is based on the chemical and physical composition of water, which is determined by special samples. Chemicals dissolved in water in quantities exceeding the established norms are precipitated using special processes, after which the water is driven through filters of various degrees of filtration, which trap certain impurities.

Softening is the process of extracting hardness salts (calcium and magnesium) from water. Selective removal of hardness salts is carried out by several methods: reagent softening, ion exchange, in which the ions of a contaminated solution change places with ions of an ion-exchange material, which uses various ion-exchange resins. Water softening reduces the risk of deposits of sparingly soluble compounds on the walls and leading elements of industrial equipment. Reverse osmosis plants of enterprises allow for deep water purification with maximum quality in most indicators.

Chlorination does not allow to purify water properly and contributes to the formation of impurities harmful to the human body. On the one hand, chlorinated water protects us from a number of dangerous viruses and pathogenic bacteria, on the other hand, chlorine destroys the protein structures of our body, affects the condition of the mucous membranes, kills beneficial bacteria in the intestines, which contributes to the deterioration of the microflora and can provoke allergic reactions. In addition, chlorine does not kill pinworm eggs and Giardia cysts.

In the US and Europe in the 1970s, cost-effective and efficient methods using ultraviolet light were developed that made it possible to eliminate the chlorination of drinking water to a greater extent.

UV cleaning is the most popular water purification method. The degree of water disinfection during ultraviolet treatment reaches 99%. This allows the method to be used in the food industry and in production with particularly high requirements for water purity. The effectiveness of this method directly depends on the characteristics of water - its transparency - turbidity, color, iron content. Therefore, this method is usually used in combination with other methods at the final stage of processing.

Water purification using ozonation based on the use of ozone gas. In the process of interacting with harmful chemical elements, ozone turns into oxygen. It has been proven that ozonation has a strong positive effect on the human body. Ozonation has an advantage over water treatment with chlorine, because it does not form toxins.

iron removal is the process of removing iron from water. Several types of water deironing are used, choosing them depending on what kind of iron is contained in the treated water: bivalent, trivalent, organic or bacterial. Reagent-free iron removal methods are used to eliminate excess iron, nitrates and other contaminants in water that give the water an unpleasant taste, odor, color and rust. Often manganese is also removed from the water, a process called demanganization.

Nowadays, the level of pollution is quite high, so the process of purifying drinking water is very important. To select the most appropriate and effective method of purifying drinking water, it is necessary to analyze it.

Water purification methods

There are many ways to purify drinking water at home. Consider the most popular.

I.Purification of drinking water without the use of filters.

Methods such as boiling, freezing or settling have been used since ancient times.

1. Boiling.

Boiling water is the simplest and most well-known way to purify water. Boiling is used to destroy viruses, bacteria, microorganisms and other organic matter, remove chlorine and other low-temperature gases (radon, ammonia, etc.). The boiling process helps to purify the water to some extent, but has a number of side effects:

- when boiling, the structure of water changes, it becomes "dead". The more we boil water, the more pathogenic organisms die in it, but at the same time, water becomes less useful for the human body.

- when boiling, water evaporates, which leads to an increase in the concentration of salts. They settle on the walls of the kettle in the form of scale and enter the human body. Accumulating in the human body, salts lead to various diseases - ranging from joint diseases, the formation of kidney stones and petrification (cirrhosis) of the liver, and ending with arteriosclerosis, heart attack, and more. others

- many types of viruses can tolerate boiling water, because higher temperatures are required to kill them.

Boiling water removes only chlorine gas. In laboratory studies, it was confirmed that after boiling tap water, additional chloroform is formed, even if the water was freed from chloroform by purging with an inert gas before boiling. This dangerous carcinogen can cause cancer.

Thus, after boiling, we get "dead" water, in which there is a fine suspension and mechanical particles, salts of heavy metals, chlorine and organochlorine, viruses, etc.

2. Settling.

Settling is mainly used to remove chlorine from water. For settling, tap water is poured into a large bucket or jar and left for 8-12 hours. Without additional mixing of water, the removal of gaseous chlorine occurs from about 1/3 of the depth from the surface of the water, therefore, in order to obtain a noticeable effect, it is necessary to follow the developed settling methods.

It is important to remember that salts of heavy metals will not disappear from settled water on their own - at best, they will settle at the bottom. Therefore, only 2/3 of the contents of the jar should be used, trying not to shake it during the process of pouring water, so that the sediment at the bottom does not mix with more or less purified water.

The efficiency of water settling usually leaves much to be desired. To enhance the effect, water is also insisted on silicon and / or shungite. After settling, the water is usually boiled.

3. Freezing or freezing.

This method is used for effective water purification by means of its recrystallization. Freezing is much more efficient than boiling and distillation, since phenol, chlorophenols and light organochlorines are distilled together with water vapor.

Most people understand the process of freezing as follows:

pour water into a bowl and put it in the refrigerator until it freezes
take the ice-cold bowl out of the refrigerator and thaw it for drinking.

The effect of water purification in this way is close to zero, although the water is slightly better than tap water.

Proper freezing is based on the chemical law, according to which, when a liquid freezes, first of all, the main substance (water) crystallizes in the coldest place, and then everything that was dissolved in the main substance (impurities) solidifies in the least cold place. That is, pure fresh water will freeze faster than water with salt impurities. All liquid substances obey this law. The most important thing is to ensure the slow freezing of water, and to conduct it in such a way that there is more of it in one place of the vessel than in another. (For more details, see the book: "Caution! Tap water! Its chemical pollution and methods of post-treatment at home.", Authors: Skorobogatov G.A., Kalinin A.I. - St. Petersburg, publishing house of St. Petersburg University, 2003) .

Follow the freezing process, and when the water is half frozen, pour out the unfrozen water (all harmful impurities remain in it), and the frozen water can be melted and used for drinking and cooking.

Thawed (melted) water, drunk immediately after thawing, is extremely useful and healing, it can speed up the recovery processes in the body, increase efficiency, and alleviate the condition in various diseases.

4. Purification of water with table salt. Fill a two-liter container with tap water, then dissolve one full tablespoon of salt in it. After 20-25 minutes, the water will be free from harmful microorganisms and salts of heavy metals, but such water is not recommended for daily use.

5. Water purification with silicon helps to purify water from impurities. This method combines water settling and silicon purification. Beforehand, silicon must be washed well in warm running water. Then put the silicon in a two-liter jar, fill it with cold water, cover it with gauze and place it in the light away from direct sunlight. After two or three days, purified water will be ready for use. The size of the silicon stone is selected at the rate of 3-10 grams of silicon per 1-5 liters of water. Carefully pour the purified water into another container, leaving 3-5 centimeters of water with sediment. Then the precipitate is poured out, the silicon and the jar are washed and filled with a new portion of water.

6. Water purification with shungite. Recently, water purification with the help of shungite has become more and more popular. For cleaning, it is recommended to use large stones, then they will less likely need to be replaced with new ones. The cleaning algorithm is as follows: 100 grams of shungite stone is taken for each liter of water. Water is poured into a container with stones for three days (no more!), after which the water is drained in the same way as in the preparation of silicon water.
Water infused with shungite has contraindications: a tendency to cancer, thrombosis, high acidity and the presence of diseases in the acute stage.

7. Water purification with activated carbon. To purify water, you can use activated carbon - it forms the basis of most filters. Coal is an excellent neutralizer of unpleasant odors (eg old rusty pipes, chlorine). In addition, coal absorbs harmful substances from tap water.
Place activated charcoal tablets (at the rate of 1 tablet per 1 liter of water) in cheesecloth, wrap and place in a container of water. After 8 hours, clean water will be ready.

8. Water purification with silver. Silver can be used to purify water, freeing it from chemical compounds, viruses and pathogenic microorganisms. In terms of antibacterial action, silver overtook carbolic acid and bleach.
Place a silver spoon, coin, or other object in a container of water overnight. After 10-12 hours, purified water will be ready for use. Such water retains useful properties for a long time.

9. Other folk methods of water purification:

- purification of water with a bunch of mountain ash - a bunch of mountain ash should be lowered into water for two to three hours.

- cleaning with willow bark, onion peel, juniper branches and bird cherry leaves - the cleansing process lasts 12 hours.

- cleaning with vinegar, iodine, wine. The substance is placed in water for 2-6 hours at the rate of: 1 teaspoon of vinegar, or 3 drops of 5% iodine, or 300 grams of young dry white wine per 1 liter of water. At the same time, chlorine and some microbes in the water still remain.

II. Purification of drinking water with the use of filters.

To remove harmful impurities from water in industry, in public utilities and in everyday life, various filters are used. The purification technologies used in industrial and domestic filters may be the same, but the performance of domestic and industrial filters differs markedly.

Consider the classification of filters.

According to the types of filtered impurities, filters are distinguished for water purification from iron, from mechanical impurities, from organic compounds, etc.

There are filters designed for technical water and filters used for drinking water. To filter drinking water, filter jugs and filters are usually used - nozzles on the faucet, as well as complex multi-component filter systems. They are also distinguished by the degree of purification - the simplest degree of purification, the average degree and the highest degree of purification.

Household filters also differ in the way they are installed: filters installed under the sink, desktop filters, filter nozzles on the faucet.

According to the filtration method, home filters for drinking water purification can be divided into two main types: - storage and flow.

Accumulative filters usually consist of a storage tank for water and a filter cartridge for water purification. Most often these are pitcher filters (Aquaphor, Brita, Barrier and others). The resource of effective operation of the filter cartridge directly depends on the quality of the water used. Replacement cartridges of this class of filters tend to accumulate dirt, so they must be replaced with new ones in a timely manner.

Flow filters are used for more thorough water purification. The degree of purification directly depends on the task.

If you want to purify water only from smell, taste or chlorine, then you can limit yourself to using a carbon filter. The filter nozzle on the faucet does an excellent job with this, which contains a water-filtering cartridge inside (polypropylene, carbon or ion-exchange resins).

If the task is to obtain good drinking water, then it is advisable to use a stepped flow-through water filtration system. For this, multi-stage filters of an average degree of purification are used. Depending on the model, such a system is installed under the sink or on the table.

Two-stage filters are designed for mechanical cleaning at the first stage, the second stage of cleaning is carried out using activated carbon. Three-stage filters, in addition to these two stages, have a third purification stage - ion exchange resin or pressed activated carbon for fine purification, enriched with one or more additives: silver, ion exchanger, hexametaphosphate crystals, etc.

If it is required to obtain high quality drinking water, then it is advisable to use the highest degree of water filtration systems with membrane filtration - reverse osmosis systems, ultrafiltration membrane filters, nano-filters.

In the reverse osmosis method, the main filter element is a reverse osmosis membrane, on which deep purification of water from various types of contaminants takes place: from salts of heavy metals, pesticides, herbicides, nitrates, viruses and bacteria. The membrane constantly cleans itself with a part of the filtered water, dumping all debris into the sewer. This increases water consumption. Such purification removes all salts and minerals from the water, and regular use of such water flushes out calcium, fluorine and other necessary substances from the body.

Water purification stages commonly used in reverse osmosis filters:

Stage 1 - a cartridge consisting of twisted or foamed polypropylene, carrying out pre-treatment from mechanical impurities and suspensions (15-30 microns)

Stage 2 - cleaning with activated carbon from chlorine and organochlorine compounds, gases.

Stage 3 - fine cleaning from mechanical impurities (1-5 microns) or additional cleaning with compressed activated carbon (CBC-CarbonBlock), which increases the service life of the thin-film membrane.

Stage 4 - cleaning with a thin-film reverse osmosis membrane (pore size 0.3-1 nanometer)

Stage 5 - carbon post-filter

Sometimes an additional stage is used - a purified water mineralizer.

Flow filters with an ultrafiltration membrane also refers to the methods of membrane water purification. The material for the ultrafiltration membrane is a tubular composite.

Externally, the filtration system is very similar to the reverse osmosis system, however, reverse osmosis cleaning is carried out more efficiently than cleaning with an ultrafiltration membrane. All filtered contaminants remain in the pores of the membrane, gradually clogging it. These filters usually do not change the hardness of the water.

Filters with an ultrafiltration membrane also have a five-stage water purification system. It includes the following filtration stages:

At the first stage of purification, water passes through a cartridge of preliminary mechanical purification. It removes mechanical particles and suspensions up to 10 microns (microns). The material for it is foamed or twisted polypropylene.

At the second stage of purification, water passes through a cartridge with activated granular carbon. At this stage, water is purified from chlorine and its compounds, gases, organic substances. This improves the taste of the water.

At the third stage of purification, water is passed through a cartridge containing compressed activated carbon. At the same time, mechanical impurities with a diameter of up to 0.5 microns (micron) and organochlorine compounds are additionally removed from the water.

At the fourth stage of purification, water passes through an ultrafiltration membrane having holes with a diameter of 0.1-0.01 microns, made of a tubular composite. The membrane removes almost all impurities dissolved in water, organic pollutants, viruses, bacteria, salts of heavy metals such as mercury, iron, manganese, arsenic. The water then passes through an in-line cartridge made from activated coconut charcoal. At this stage, the final post-treatment of water takes place, its taste improves, and odors are removed.

Nanofilters are the latest development of Japanese scientists in the field of nano and biotechnology. This is a flowing seven-stage complex of high-quality water purification, which allows you to remove all harmful impurities from it and make water as useful as possible for the human body.

At the outlet, the system produces purified and structured drinking water, similar in properties to melt water. At the same time, the system allows you to adjust the pH level.

The quantitative indicator of hydrogen ions in water often affects the physicochemical properties and biological activity of proteins and nucleic acids, therefore, for the normal functioning of the body, maintaining acid-base balance is a task of exceptional importance. The fourth stage, consisting of bioceramic balls, performs the function of adjusting the pH level of water to the pH level of human blood.

The anions emitted by tourmaline, which is part of the fifth cartridge, have a positive effect on the immune system, the endocrine system, cleanse the blood vessels, and charge the blood plasma.

It should be noted that the system with nanofilters has a rather high cost.

Thus, a modern person has access to many ways to obtain tasty, safe and high-quality water. Manufacturers of filters and water purification systems offer to choose and use the most effective of them. The range of prices and a wide range of products allows people with different income levels to choose the right device for themselves and enjoy the benefits of clean and healthy water.

And what methods and methods of water purification do you use?

Write about it in the comments!

Regardless of the method and method of purification you choose, the water that you receive as a result of treatment should be right water. Only then will your body be able to get the most out of it.

And one more thing is important: correct water should be available to you wherever you are - at home, at work, on vacation, on the road ...

How to make the right water out of your water– .

The text of the work is placed without images and formulas.
The full version of the work is available in the "Job Files" tab in PDF format

I Introduction

All living things in our life are connected with water, so there is no more exciting and discussed topic than the topic of water. The quality of tap water is especially problematic. I proved this with my previous work. You can buy already purified water in the store, but bottled water costs money, and using it all the time is quite expensive. Taking care of your own health and the health of your family, you can find for yourself the best way to purify water at home, so I consider the topic “Methods for purifying tap water at home” relevant.

Target: experimentally identify the most effective method of water purification at home

Tasks:

To study the literature and materials on the Internet about the methods of water purification;

Conduct a survey among primary school students;

Determine empirically the most effective and affordable ways to purify water at home;

Evaluate the results and draw conclusions;

Based on the results of the work, draw up a booklet for students of their school and their parents;

Hypothesis: Tap water can be purified by yourself

Object of study: water.

Subject of study: tap water

Relevance: For the normal functioning of the body, water is needed that does not contain harmful impurities and mechanical additives, i.e. good quality.

Practical significance: materials and results of the work can be used at extracurricular activities, in circle work, in the classroom, as well as to inform students and their parents.

Research methods:

Work with information source;

Social survey (questionnaire);

Drawing up analytical charts;

Researching;

Study of literature;

I decided to get information on this topic from primary school students and asked them the following questions:

Do you use tap water?

What kind of water do you drink?

What cleaning methods do your family use?

We systematized the obtained data and presented it on pie charts.

Most of the children I interviewed do not drink tap water, but drink filtered and boiled water. I was interested in what methods of water purification still exist.

From the "Environmental ABC for Children and Teenagers" I learned various methods of water purification. I have conducted research to identify the most effective and affordable method of water purification.

II main part

Water treatment methods

Purification is the removal of foreign and unwanted substances from water. And also from harmful impurities.

In the course of my research work, I have studied various ways to purify drinking water at home.

1.Filtering - the process of separating heterogeneous systems using porous partitions. Filtration of liquids in the laboratory is carried out using funnels in which special filter paper is inserted. . Some semblance of them was created in China and was the usual reed reeds soaked in coagulants. One of these simplest filters even went down in history as the “Hippocratic sleeve”. The prototypes of modern filters. Their principle of operation was close to natural purification processes and consisted in the passage of water through a layer of various substances: crushed stone, sand and charcoal.

2 Water purification using filters

A variety of filters are used to remove harmful impurities from tap water. At home, a variety of jugs and faucet nozzles are often used. This is the most common and affordable way to purify water. Drinking filters - jugs are able to remove excess chlorine, organic matter, scale (hardness salts) from water. Pitcher filters quite effectively purify tap water, are cheap at the initial purchase, and therefore are widely used. All drinking filters - jugs are equipped with a replaceable cleaning element (also called a "cassette" or "cartridge"). The cassette is designed in such a way as to maintain a constant flow rate of water through the cleaning mixture. The composition of the mixture includes - activated carbon, polypropylene liner, several types of ion-exchange resins. This is important for uniform and complete water purification. Filtration of this type is aimed directly at purifying the liquid from harmful impurities such as chlorine or pesticides. It is also able to rid the water of various unpleasant odors and make the water absolutely transparent. This cartridge should be replaced approximately once every three months.

Activated carbon for water purification.

Activated carbon is a well-known water purifier and is used in a wide variety of filters. After treatment with coal, water acquires a pleasant taste and smell, since coal absorbs almost all harmful substances found in tap water, and also removes lime. But coal can purify water itself.

settling When water is settled, chlorine and ammonia are removed from it, and some salts and colloidal solutions are deposited on the bottom. However, salts of heavy metals from settled water will not go anywhere, at best they settle to the bottom.

freezing water

Today it is an increasingly popular method of water purification, which, moreover, is also considered effective. Melt water is very poor in salts. Therefore, the amount of useful minerals, especially potassium and sodium, must be replenished with other drinks or food. It is known that the use of melt water cleanses the blood and lymph, all internal organs and skin. At the same time, the work of the cardiovascular system improves, metabolic processes are activated. At the same time, an unprecedented influx of strength and energy is felt.

Water purification with silver

Since ancient times, people have known a way to purify water for drinking with the help of silver. Silver is an excellent bactericidal agent, it is able to kill various microbes. Silver also contributes to the long-term storage of water. Even in ancient times, people noticed that water from silver jugs differs from ordinary water. It does not rot for many months, and food cooked on it is stored much longer and tastes much better.

Silicon Water Purification is the oldest way. Silicon is one of the main elements in the periodic table of Mendeleev. Silicon got its name from the Greek word meaning "rock, cliff". It is the second most common chemical element found on Earth. Clay, sand, opal, jasper are all varieties of silica, which contains the most silicon. With the help of silicon, even water is purified, which acquires absolutely amazing qualities and has a beneficial effect on the human body.

Cleaning with shungite.

Shungite is the oldest carbon-containing mineral on the planet. This stone is mined in Karelia. The amazing properties of shungite have been known in Russia for a very long time, they only called it "slate stone". By order of Peter I, each of his soldiers was obliged to carry a “slate stone” in a backpack in order to lower these stone pieces into a pot of water to get disinfected water.

Shungite - purifies water from organochlorine compounds, excess copper, manganese, iron, nitrates and nitrites, completely - from helminth eggs, removes turbidity, tastes, odors from water, completely disinfects water.

At the same time, it can saturate the water with various macro- and microelements to a concentration that is optimal for the human body.

Purification of water using mountain quartz.

The simplest, most common, and most familiar example of quartz is sand. Pure quartz is colorless or white in color. Quartz does not dissolve in water.

The method of infusion of water on quartz came from distant Tibet. He is over 3000 years old. This is the oldest, simplest and most effective way to purify water. Quartz purifies water from metal compounds, radionuclides, and various harmful impurities. Quartz water facilitates the transport of nutrients directly into the cells and the removal of toxins from the body.

Folk remedies for water purification, there are also places to be: cleansing with a bunch of mountain ash, cleansing with willow bark, iodine, nettle, etc.

III The experiment consists of three stages

Stage 1- water purification in different ways

Target: Show different ways to purify tap water

Equipment : tap water, water tanks, two types of filters, activated carbon, kettle for boiling water, freezer, silver spoon, silicon, shungite, mountain quartz

Test 1. Filtration with a pitcher filter. (Annex I)

I poured water filtered with a pitcher into a glass

Test 2. Filtering with built-in filter. (Appendix I)

She poured water from the filter into a glass. I took readings with instruments.

Test 3. Activated carbon for water purification. (Appendix I)

Tablets of activated charcoal, about five, I wrapped in cheesecloth and lowered into a container of water. I put it in a cool place and waited 10-12 hours. Water must always be in a cool room, otherwise coal will not only not neutralize the water, but, on the contrary, will promote the growth of bacteria.

Test 4. Boiling (Appendix II)

I poured water into a vessel and boiled for at least 10-15 minutes. The process is accompanied by the release of steam.

Test 5. Settling (Appendix II)

To purify water in this way, I poured water into a container and left it for about 6-7 hours without closing the lid. For the first time, 3-4 hours, volatile impurities such as chlorine and ammonia will evaporate from the water, and in the next 2-3 hours, heavy metal salts will settle. Then she carefully poured ¾ of the water into a clean container, poured the rest..

Test 6 Freezing water (Appendix II)

In order to prepare melt water, I needed:

Take a large bowl and pour water into it, not reaching its edges by about a centimeter;

I left this dish in the freezer for 4-5 hours. It is necessary that at least some of this water be frozen;

When half of the water in the vessel froze, I broke the ice formed on top and drained the water from the bottom. You can only drink and use ice for cooking. And only its transparent parts. In other parts, harmful substances have accumulated, so they are unsuitable for drinking.

The method is based on the fact that it is the pure part of the water that freezes first in the vessel. And harmful substances, in turn, settle to the bottom of the dishes, I successfully drain them.

Test 7. Purification of water with silver (Appendix III)

I took water into a large container and put a silver object on the bottom - a spoon. By morning, silver ions will purify the water no worse than any filter.

Test 8. Water purification with silicon (Appendix III)

Before the first use, the flint must be washed. I placed the stones in a container and filled it with water. I covered it with gauze and put it in a dark place, away from sunlight and insisted for 3 days. After that, the water can be consumed. As you consume, leave some of the water (at the level of pebbles), top up and infuse for 8-10 hours, constantly for 6-8 months.

Test 9. Cleaning with shungite (Appendix III)

To purify water with shungite, first I washed the stones with running water. I filled the minerals with tap water at the rate of 150g. for 2-3 liters. She insisted for 3 days. Top up the water as you use it and insist for 8-10 hours. Rinse shungite once a week. Such water is suitable not only for drinking, but also for cooking, brewing tea and much more.

Test 10. Purification of water using rock quartz (Appendix IV)

I washed the quartz in cold running water, then filled them with water at the rate of 200 grams of stones per 3 liters of water. It is necessary to infuse water for three days and use it in its pure form, as water is used up, it can be poured into a container. Once a week, it is advisable to remove the stones and wash them from the formed plaque.

Stage 2 - water measurement TDS-meter

The TDS meter is used to assess the quality of drinking water. It shows the amount of inorganic impurities suspended in water, mainly salts of various metals. Hence the second name - saline. In everyday life, it is used to determine the quality of tap water.

Target : empirically show the presence of salts of various metals

Equipment : TDS-meter, 10 samples of purified water

I poured a clean glass of purified water. Remove the protective cap from the device. Press the "ON" button to turn on the display. I immersed the sensor of the device in water and waited about 10 seconds. She took readings from the display. She entered the results in a table and compared with tap water.

Water purification methods	TDS is the amount of salts of various metals.
Filtration
Built-in filter
Activated carbon cleaning
Boiling
Silver cleaning
settling
Freezing
silicon cleaning
Shungite cleaning
Cleaning with rock quartz

Tap water indicators

tap water

Conclusion : According to the TDS-meter readings, the lowest salt content in water purified with shungite.

Stage 3 - measurement of water with an electrolyzer

The electrolyzer is designed to test water for the content of impurities and microelements. With the help of an electrolyzer, you can clearly see not only the presence of certain trace elements, but also determine their amount by the intensity of water staining. The more intense the color obtained during the experiment, the higher the concentration of substances in the water. The optimal color for clean and healthy water is from light yellow to orange. He talks about the presence of useful trace elements in the water, such as calcium, sodium, potassium, fluorine, etc. in the right concentration, an excess of these trace elements will color the water fiery red. Exceeding the permissible norm of harmful and dangerous microelements, such as cadmium, lead, arsenic, nickel, chromium, mercury, etc. colors water in green, blue and black with different shades depending on the concentration of these substances.

Target: empirically show the content of impurities in water

Equipment: electrolyzer device, 10 samples of purified water.

For the experiment, I prepared two transparent glasses for water with a capacity of 100-500 ml. I put them on the table next to me. Poured water. I placed the electrolyzer in a glass, and then turned on the power. Pressed the "on" button and performed the test for 30 seconds, then turned off the device. Thus, I tested the water purified by me. The results were entered into a table and compared with tap water.

Water purification methods	The electrolyzer checks water for the content of impurities and trace elements.
Filtration	orange precipitate
Built-in filter	orange precipitate
Activated carbon cleaning	bright orange color
Boiling	orange precipitate
Silver cleaning	slight sediment
settling	orange precipitate
Freezing	slight sediment
silicon cleaning	orange precipitate
Shungite cleaning	orange precipitate
Cleaning with rock quartz	orange precipitate

Tap water indicators

tap water

Black sediment

Conclusion: According to the measurement results, the least amount of salt content in water purified with silver and in frozen water.

Conclusion.

In the course of the research work, the hypothesis put forward by me was confirmed. During the work, various methods of purifying tap water were studied and tested (filtering, boiling, settling, freezing, saturation with silicon ions, silver purification, etc.) Based on the experiments, I concluded that at home it is really possible to purify water with minimal costs. Evaluating the various methods of water purification, the following conclusion can be drawn: the most effective method is purification with silicon, shungite, quartz, filtered by a built-in filter. Freezing and settling proved to be the most practical method. In my work, I shared my personal experience in determining the quality of drinking water at home.

Bibliography

V.P. Sitnikov G.P. Shalaeva "Who is who in the world of nature" Polygraph publishing house, 2011 (p. 5-6)

A.E. Chizhevsky Children's encyclopedia "I know the world: Ecology" 2001 (p. 118-119)

Ecological alphabet for children and teenagers. Publishing house MNEPU Moscow 1995 (from 92)

Miklashevsky G.S. Pure water. household filters. - St. Petersburg: Arlit, 2000.

The newest complete reference book for schoolchildren: 5-11 grades: in 2 volumes: Biology; Chemistry; Geography. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. (494 p.)

Encyclopedia for children. Ecology. Moscow Avanta 2001(324p.)

E. Mikheeva "Healing properties of silicon" S - P, 2002 (15 p.)

Kibardin Gennady "Shungite: Natural Healer" Eksmo 2012 (38 p.)

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tap water

Built-in filter