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What is style as a phenomenon of literature. What are text styles


Style (from Latin stylus - writing stick) of fiction - a way of being: a) the general literary language, b) the language of fiction (including poetic language), carried out in a specific work of a specific author; corpus of works by a particular author; corpus of works by a number of authors of the same era (schools, trends, etc.); corpus of works by a number of chronologically unrelated authors who choose a similar manner of relationship with the language and their works.

This definition characterizes the point of view from the outside. If we talk about the inner essence of the style of fiction, then this is the centripetal movement of all elements of the text, subordinate to a single idea, which ensures the solidity of the work. The nature of the linkage of words is both an appeal to a certain type of perception, and an indispensable necessity, outside of which the artistic world disintegrates.

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The culturological function of the style of fiction is clear: through it, the author and the reader communicate with each other.

Style in a modern work of art can be based on one of the traditional varieties of language style in general: 1) neutral, 2) bookish, 3) colloquial, 4) scientific and their derivatives. The main ones are neutral, colloquial and bookish. It was on them that normative aesthetics was built. Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome or European classicism (the most famous theory of "three calms", in the domestic tradition associated with the name of M. Lomonosov).

It is also possible to imitate any generally accepted manner of performing one or another speech act (oratory, newspaper article, official document, diary entry, scientific lecture, everyday dialogue, friendly letter, etc.). The combination of stylistic manners makes up the special dynamics of the text, its absence is perceived as a sign of the author's constant presence in the work and the priority of his position, the author's point of view: this happens in novels and smaller genre forms by Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. In any case, style, and first of all the style of fiction, is always a selection and the principle of a combination of language means, techniques, elements, etc. Styles are distinguished by the way the selection is carried out. So, in the domestic prose of the 1920s. the stylistics of the document, "objective" fixation of life events, dominated. The style of Mandelstam's poetry can be defined as "symbolic-metaphorical", S.S. Krzhizhanovsky - as metonymic. S. M. Bulgakov - psychological-realistic, in some cases with a predominance of the ironic element. When Chukovsky called Bryusov "the poet of adjectives," it was precisely the stylistic characteristic that was meant. The same can be said about the expression "Fet is verbless."

In relation to the neutral language norm, the style of fiction, like its language, can be characterized as a system of deviations. These deviations become constant components, the main parameters of systematization. Their source is in the worldview and artistic ideal of the author, who seeks to create his own artistic world in accordance with his own subjective ideas of beauty and harmony. Meeting the reader's response, the subjective becomes objective: the style of the writer is close to his readers, because they see the world in a similar way. That is why in some cases the style is directly identified with the worldview.

The worldview can be both private, individual, and universal, due to the state of culture in a particular era. Moreover, different eras are characterized by different attitudes towards universality, and therefore we can talk about the "Style of French (Russian) classicism" (as well as separately about the style of P. Corneille or J. Racine, which, for all their proximity, differed in many parameters relations with the world), but it is difficult, for example, to strive to generalize even the “Style of Russian Symbolism” (despite the commonality of many linguistic devices, Vyach. Ivanov, Balmont and Blok have very little in common at the stylistic level). At the same time, researchers quite reasonably talk about the common language of the Symbolists (the most authoritative study in this area is N. Kozhevnikova’s study “Word Usage in Russian Poetry of the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries”). Moreover - the style of acmeism. The latter case is especially interesting, since the commonwealth of acmeists, in the process of poets communicating with each other, developed many common language, symbolic units (a funny example is the famous “squirrel skin” of Akhmatova and Mandelstam). Akhmatova's attitude to the description of a real everyday situation dictates "simplicity", seeming routine, stylistic restraint. In Mandelstam, what is happening is translated not into an eventful, but into a purely existential layer, into a mythological or, in any case, mythologized time of antiquity, which appears as a kind of conglomeration of Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt.

The traditions of classical rhetoric and poetics, which constituted a meaningful body of manuals for the study of literature in the 19th century, were used (and supplanted) by the emerging scientific style, which eventually receded into the field of linguistics.

The linguistic orientation of style was already assumed by ancient theory. Among the requirements for style formulated in the school of Aristotle was the requirement of "correctness of language"; the aspect of presentation associated with the "selection of words" (stylistics) was determined in the era of Hellenism.

In "Poetics" Aristotle clearly contrasted "the words" commonly used ", giving clarity to speech, and all sorts of unusual words, giving solemnity to speech; the writer's task is to find the right balance of both in each necessary case.

Thus, the division into “high” and “low” styles, which have a functional meaning, was fixed: “for Aristotle, “low” was business, scientific, non-literary, “high” - decorated, artistic, literary; after Aristotle, they began to distinguish between the style of high, medium and low.

Summing up the stylistic research of ancient theorists, Quintilian equates grammar with literature, transposing “the science of speaking correctly and interpreting poets” into the area of ​​the former. Grammar, literature, rhetoric form the language of fiction, which is studied by stylistics, closely interacting with the theory and history of poetic speech.

However, in late antiquity and the Middle Ages, there was already a tendency to recode the linguistic and poetological features of style (the laws of metrics, word usage, phraseology, the use of figures and tropes, etc.) into the plane of content, subject, theme, which was also reflected in the doctrine of styles.

As P. A. Grinzer notes in relation to “types of speech”, “for Servius, Donat, Galfred of Vinsalva, John of Harland and most other theorists, the criterion for dividing into types was not the quality of expression, but the quality of the content of the work.

As exemplary works of simple, medium and high styles, Virgil's Bucolics, Georgics and Aeneid were considered, respectively, and in accordance with them, each style was assigned its own circle of heroes, animals, plants, their special names and scenes ... " .

The principle of matching the style to the subject: "Style that meets the theme" (N. A. Nekrasov) - clearly could not be reduced only to the "expression" of the linguistic plan, for example, to one degree or another of attracting Church Slavonicisms as a criterion for distinguishing between "calms" - high, mediocre and low.

M. V. Lomonosov, who applied these terms in his linguistic and cultural studies, based on Cicero, Horace, Quintilian and other ancient rhetoricians and poets, not only correlated the doctrine of styles with genre poetics in its verbal design (“Preface on the Usefulness of Church Books in Russian Language, 1758), but also took into account the substantive significance associated with each of the genres (“memory of the genre”), which was predetermined by the communication between the “linguistic” and “literary” styles. The concept of three styles received “practical relevance” (M. L. Gasparov) in the Renaissance and especially classicism, significantly disciplining the thinking of writers and enriching it with the whole complex of content-formal ideas that had accumulated by that time.

The predominant orientation of the stylistics of the New Age to the linguistic aspect was disputed by G. N. Pospelov, not without reason. Analyzing the definition of style adopted in linguistics is “one of the differential varieties of language, a linguistic subsystem with a dictionary, phraseological combinations, turns of phrase and constructions ... usually associated with certain areas of speech use”, the scientist noted in it “a mixture of the concepts of“ language ”and“ speech."

Meanwhile, “style as a verbal phenomenon is not a property of language, but a property of speech, arising from the characteristics of the emotional and mental content expressed in it.”

V. M. Zhirmunsky, G. O. Vinokur, A. N. Gvozdev and others wrote about the need to distinguish between the spheres of linguistic and literary stylistics on various occasions. - Lovsky, D.S. Likhachev, V.F. Shishmarev), who was inclined to include stylistics in the field of literary criticism, the general theory of literature, and aesthetics.

In discussions on this issue, a prominent place was occupied by the concept of V. V. Vinogradov, who argued the need for a synthesis of "linguistic stylistics of fiction with a general aesthetics and theory of literature."

In the study of writing styles, the scientist suggested taking into account three main levels: “this is, firstly, the stylistics of the language ... secondly, the stylistics of speech, that is, different types and acts of public use of the language; thirdly, the style of fiction”.

According to V. V. Vinogradov, “the style of the language includes the study and differentiation different forms and types of expressive-semantic coloring, which are reflected in the semantic structure of words and word combinations, in their synonymic parallelism and subtle semantic relationships, and in the synonymy of syntactic constructions, in their intonation qualities, in word arrangement variations, etc. ”; the style of speech, which is “based on the style of the language”, includes “intonation, rhythm ... tempo, pauses, emphasis, phrasal accent”, monologue and dialogic speech, the specifics of genre expression, verse and prose, etc.

As a result, "getting into the sphere of the stylistics of fiction, the material of the stylistics of language and the stylistics of speech undergoes a new redistribution and a new grouping in the verbal and aesthetic plan, acquiring a different life and being included in a different creative perspective."

At the same time, there is no doubt that a broad interpretation of the style of fiction can "blur" the object of study - according to it, for all its multidimensional study, it should be aimed at the actual literary style.

A typologically similar range of problems is associated with the relationship between style as a subject of literary criticism and style as a subject of art history. V. V. Vinogradov believes that “literary stylistics” sometimes combines “specific tasks and points of view coming from the theory and history of fine arts, and in relation to poetic speech - from the field of musicology”, since it is “an offshoot of the general art criticism stylistics ". A. N. Sokolov, who deliberately put forward style as an aesthetic category at the center of his research, tracing the development of the art history understanding of style (in the works of J. Winkelmann, J. W. Goethe, G. W. F. Hegel, A. Riegl, Kohn-Wiener, G. Wölfflin and others), makes a number of significant methodological observations regarding the "elements" and "carriers" of style, as well as their "correlation".

The researcher introduces the concept of stylistic categories as “those most general concepts in which style is comprehended as a specific phenomenon of art” - their list, obviously, can be continued. The stylistic categories are: “the attraction of art to strict or free forms”, “the size of the monument of art, its scale”, “the ratio of statics and dynamics”, “simplicity and complexity”, “symmetry and asymmetry”, etc.

In conclusion, anticipating a deeper and more focused study of the style of the characterization of this concept, we emphasize that its inherent complexity and non-one-dimensionality follow from the very nature of the phenomenon, which changes over time and generates more and more new approaches and methodological principles in the theory of studying style.

The question posed by A. N. Sokolov as anticipating the inevitable difficulties associated with the objective “two-unity” of style is still relevant: “As a phenomenon of verbal art, literary style correlates with artistic style. As a phenomenon of verbal art, literary style correlates with linguistic style.

And universalizing in relation to all the diverse positions regarding the concept of "style" is the conclusion of the researcher: "Stylistic unity is no longer a form, but the meaning of the form."

Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005

The book sphere of communication is expressed through the artistic style - a multi-tasking literary style that has developed historically, and stands out from other styles through means of expression.

Artistic style caters literary works and aesthetic human activity. The main goal is to influence the reader with the help of sensual images. Tasks by which the goal of artistic style is achieved:

  • Creation of a living picture describing the work.
  • Transfer of the emotional and sensual state of the characters to the reader.

Art style features

Artistic style has the goal of emotional impact on a person, but it is not the only one. The general picture of the application of this style is described through its functions:

  • Figurative-cognitive. Presenting information about the world and society through the emotional component of the text.
  • Ideological and aesthetic. Maintenance of the system of images, through which the writer conveys the idea of ​​the work to the reader, is waiting for a response to the idea of ​​the plot.
  • Communicative. The expression of the vision of an object through sensory perception. Information from the artistic world is associated with reality.

Signs and characteristic linguistic features of the artistic style

To easily define this style of literature, let's pay attention to its features:

  • Original syllable. Due to the special presentation of the text, the word becomes interesting without contextual meaning, breaking the canonical schemes of constructing texts.
  • High level of text ordering. The division of prose into chapters, parts; in the play - the division into scenes, acts, phenomena. In poems, the metric is the size of the verse; stanza - the doctrine of the combination of poems, rhyme.
  • High level of polysemy. The presence of several interrelated meanings in one word.
  • Dialogues. The artistic style is dominated by the speech of the characters, as a way of describing the phenomena and events in the work.

The artistic text contains all the richness of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The presentation of the emotionality and imagery inherent in this style is carried out with the help of special means, which are called tropes - linguistic means of expressiveness of speech, words in figurative meaning. Examples of some trails:

  • Comparison is part of the work, with the help of which the image of the character is complemented.
  • Metaphor - the meaning of a word in a figurative sense, based on an analogy with another object or phenomenon.
  • An epithet is a definition that makes a word expressive.
  • Metonymy is a combination of words in which one object is replaced by another on the basis of spatial and temporal similarity.
  • Hyperbole is a stylistic exaggeration of a phenomenon.
  • Litota is a stylistic understatement of a phenomenon.

Where Fiction Style Is Used

The artistic style has absorbed numerous aspects and structures of the Russian language: tropes, polysemy of words, complex grammatical and syntactic structure. Therefore, its general scope is huge. It also includes the main genres of works of art.

The genres of artistic style used are related to one of the genera, expressing reality in a special way:

  • Epos. Shows external unrest, thoughts of the author (description of storylines).
  • Lyrics. Reflects the author's inner worries (experiences of the characters, their feelings and thoughts).
  • Drama. The presence of the author in the text is minimal, a large number of dialogues between characters. Theatrical performances are often made from such a work. Example - The Three Sisters of A.P. Chekhov.

These genres have subspecies that can be subdivided into even more specific varieties. Main:

Epic genres:

  • Epic is a genre of work in which historical events predominate.
  • A novel is a large manuscript with a complex storyline. All attention is paid to the life and fate of the characters.
  • The story is a work of a smaller volume, which describes the life case of the hero.
  • The story is a medium-sized manuscript that has the features of the plot of a novel and a short story.

Lyric genres:

  • Ode is a solemn song.
  • An epigram is a satirical poem. Example: A. S. Pushkin "Epigram on M. S. Vorontsov."
  • An elegy is a lyrical poem.
  • A sonnet is a poetic form of 14 lines, the rhyming of which has a strict construction system. Examples of this genre are common in Shakespeare.

Drama genres:

  • Comedy - the genre is based on a plot that ridicules social vices.
  • Tragedy is a work that describes the tragic fate of heroes, the struggle of characters, relationships.
  • Drama - has a dialogue structure with a serious storyline showing the characters and their dramatic relationships with each other or with society.

How to define literary text?

It is easier to understand and consider the features of this style when the reader is provided with an artistic text with a good example. Let's practice to determine what style of text is in front of us, using an example:

“Marat's father, Stepan Porfirievich Fateev, an orphan from infancy, was from the Astrakhan bandit family. The revolutionary whirlwind blew him out of the locomotive vestibule, dragged him through the Michelson plant in Moscow, machine-gun courses in Petrograd ... "

The main aspects confirming the artistic style of speech:

  • This text is built on the transfer of events from an emotional point of view, so there is no doubt that we have a literary text.
  • The means used in the example: “the revolutionary whirlwind blew it out, dragged it in” is nothing more than a trope, or rather, a metaphor. The use of this trope is inherent only in a literary text.
  • An example of a description of the fate of a person, the environment, social events. Conclusion: this literary text belongs to the epic.

Any text can be parsed in detail according to this principle. If the functions or distinguishing features that are described above are immediately evident, then there is no doubt that you have a literary text in front of you.

If you find it difficult to deal with a large amount of information on your own; the main means and features of a literary text are incomprehensible to you; task examples seem complicated - use a resource such as a presentation. A ready-made presentation with illustrative examples will intelligibly fill in knowledge gaps. The sphere of the school subject "Russian language and literature" serves electronic sources of information on functional styles of speech. Please note that the presentation is concise and informative, contains explanatory tools.

Thus, having understood the definition of artistic style, you will better understand the structure of works. And if a muse visits you, and there is a desire to write a work of art yourself, follow the lexical components of the text and the emotional presentation. Good luck with your study!

STYLE(from the Greek stilos - a pointed stick for writing, writing style, handwriting), the choice of a certain number of speech norms, characteristic means of artistic expression, revealing the author's vision and understanding of reality in the work; limiting generalization of similar formal and meaningful features, characteristic features in various works of the same period or era ("era style": Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism, Romanticism, Modernism).

The emergence of the concept of style in the history of European literature is closely connected with the birth of rhetoric - the theory and practice of eloquence and the rhetorical tradition. Style implies learning and continuity, following certain speech norms. Style is impossible without imitation, without recognition of the authority of the word sanctified by tradition. At the same time, imitation was presented to poets and prose writers not as blind following, copying, but as a creatively productive competition, rivalry. Borrowing was a merit, not a vice. Literary creativity for eras in which the authority of tradition is unquestionable meant say the same thing in a different way, inside the finished form and the given content to find their own. So, M.V. Lomonosov in Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna(1747) transposed into an odic stanza a period from the speech of the ancient Roman orator Cicero. Compare:

“Our other joys are limited by time, and place, and age, and these activities nourish our youth, delight our old age, adorn us in happiness, serve as a refuge and consolation in misfortune, delight us at home, do not interfere on the way, they are with us and at rest, and in a foreign land, and on vacation. (Cicero. Speech in defense of Licinius Archius. Per. S.P. Kondratiev)

The sciences feed young men,
They give joy to the old,
Decorate in a happy life
In an accident, take care;
Joy in domestic difficulties
And in distant wanderings is not a hindrance.
Science is everywhere
Among the nations and in the wilderness,
In the city noise and alone,
In the chambers are sweet and in work.

(M.V. Lomonosov. Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna)

Individual, non-general, original are manifested in style from antiquity to modern times as a paradoxical result of devout observance of the canon, conscious adherence to tradition. The period from antiquity to the 1830s in the history of literature is usually called "classical", i.e. one for which it was natural to think by "examples" and "traditions" (classicus in Latin and means "example"). The more the poet strove to speak on generally significant (religious, ethical, aesthetic) topics, the more fully his author's, unique individuality was revealed. The more intentionally the poet followed stylistic norms, the more original his style became. But it never occurred to the poets and prose writers of the "classical" period to insist on their uniqueness and originality. Style in modern times is transformed from individual evidence of the general into the identification of an individually comprehended whole, i.e. the specific way the writer works with the word is put forward in the first place. Thus, style in modern times is such a specific quality of a poetic work that is tangible and obvious in the whole as a whole and in everything separate. With all distinctness, such an understanding of style is affirmed in the 19th century. century of romanticism, realism and modernism. The cult of the masterpiece - the perfect work and the cult of the genius - the all-pervading artistic will of the author are equally characteristic of the styles of the nineteenth century. In the perfection of the work and the omnipresence of the author, the reader guessed the opportunity to come into contact with another life, “get used to the world of the work”, identify with some hero and find himself on an equal footing in a dialogue with the author himself. About the feeling behind the style of a living human personality, he expressively wrote in the article Preface to the writings of Guy de Maupassant L.N. Tolstoy: “People who are little sensitive to art often think that a work of art is one whole because everything is built on the same plot, or the life of one person is described. It's not fair. It only seems so to a superficial observer: the cement that binds every work of art into a single whole and therefore produces the illusion of a reflection of life is not a unity of persons and positions, but the unity of the author’s original moral attitude to the subject. In fact, when we read or contemplate a work of art by a new author, the main question that arises in our soul is: “Well, what kind of person are you? And how do you differ from all the people I know, and what can you tell me new about how we should look at our life? artist."

Tolstoy formulates here the opinion of the entire literary nineteenth century: both romantic, and realistic, and modernist. The author is understood by him as a genius, creating from within himself an artistic reality, deeply rooted in reality and at the same time independent of it. In the literature of the nineteenth century, the work became the “world”, while the pillar became the only and unique one, just like the “objective” world that served as its source, model and material. The author's style is understood as a unique vision of the world, with its own inherent features. Under these conditions, prosaic creativity acquires special significance: it is precisely in it that the opportunity is first of all manifested to say a word about reality in the language of reality itself. It is significant that for Russian literature the second half of the 19th century. This is the heyday of the novel. Poetic creativity seems to be "overshadowed" by prose. The first name that opens the "prosaic" period of Russian literature is N.V. Gogol (1809–1852). The most important feature of his style, repeatedly noted by critics, are secondary, once mentioned characters, animated by reservations, metaphors and digressions. At the beginning of the fifth chapter dead souls(1842) a portrait of the yet unnamed landowner Sobakevich is given:

“As he drove up to the porch, he noticed two faces looking out of the window almost at the same time: a female in a cap, narrow, long as a cucumber, and a male, round, wide, like Moldavian pumpkins, called gourds, from which balalaikas are made in Russia, two-stringed, light balalaikas, the beauty and fun of a quick-witted twenty-year-old guy, flashing and dandy, and winking and whistling at the white-breasted and white-embroidered girls who had gathered to listen to his quiet-stringed jingling.

The narrator compares Sobakevich's head with a special kind of pumpkin, the pumpkin reminds the narrator of balalaikas, and the balalaika in his imagination evokes a village youth who amuses pretty girls with his game. Verbal turnover "creates" a person from nothing.

The stylistic originality of the prose of F. M. Dostoevsky (1821–1881) is associated with the special “speech intensity” of his characters: in Dostoevsky’s novels, the reader is constantly confronted with extended dialogues and monologues. In chapter 5, part 4 of the novel Crime and Punishment(1866), the main character Raskolnikov, at a meeting with the investigator Porfiry Petrovich, reveals incredible suspiciousness, thereby only strengthening the investigator in the thought of his involvement in the murder. Verbal repetition, reservations, interruptions of speech are especially expressive characterizing the dialogues and monologues of Dostoevsky's heroes and his style: “You seem to have said yesterday that you would like to ask me ... formally about my acquaintance with this ... murdered woman? - Raskolnikov began again - "well, why did I insert seems? flashed through him like lightning. “Well, why am I so worried about inserting this seems? Another thought immediately flashed through him like lightning. And he suddenly felt that his suspiciousness, from one contact with Porfiry, from only two glances, had already grown in an instant to monstrous proportions ... "

The originality of the style of L.N. Tolstoy (1828–1910) is explained to a very large extent by the detailed psychological analysis, to which the writer subjects his characters, and which manifests itself in an extremely developed and complex syntax. In chapter 35, part 2, volume 3 War and peace(1863–1869) Tolstoy depicts Napoleon’s mental confusion on the Borodino field: “When he went over in his imagination all this strange Russian company, in which not a single battle was won, in which neither banners, nor cannons, nor corps were taken in two months troops, when he looked at the secretly sad faces of those around him and listened to reports that the Russians were all standing, a terrible feeling, similar to the feeling experienced in dreams, seized him, and all the unfortunate accidents that could destroy him occurred to him. The Russians could attack his left wing, they could tear his middle apart, a stray cannonball could kill him himself. All this was possible. In his previous battles, he considered only the chances of success, but now countless accidents seemed to him, and he expected them all. Yes, it was like in a dream, when a villain advancing on him is presented to a person, and in a dream the person swung and hit his villain, with that terrible effort, which, he knows, should destroy him, and feels that his hand, powerless and soft , falls like a rag, and the horror of inevitable death embraces a helpless person. Using different types of syntactic links, Tolstoy creates a sense of the illusory nature of what is happening to the hero, the nightmarish indistinguishability of sleep and reality.

The style of A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904) is largely determined by the meager accuracy of details, characteristics, a huge variety of intonations and the abundance of use of indirect speech, when the statement can belong to both the hero and the author. "Modal" words, expressing the speaker's hesitant attitude to the topic of the statement, can be recognized as a special sign of Chekhov's style. At the beginning of the story Bishop(1902), in which the action takes place shortly before Easter, the reader is presented with a picture of a quiet, joyful night: “Soon the service ended. When the bishop got into the carriage to go home, the whole garden, illuminated by the moon, spread the cheerful, beautiful ringing of expensive, heavy bells. White walls, white crosses on graves, white birches and black shadows, and a distant moon in the sky, standing just above the monastery, seemed now, they lived their own special life, incomprehensible, but close to man. It was April at the beginning, and after a warm spring day it became cool, slightly frosty, and the breath of spring was felt in the soft, cold air. The road from the monastery to the city was on the sand, it was necessary to go at a walk; and on both sides of the carriage, in the moonlight, bright and calm, pilgrims trudged along the sand. And everyone was silent, thinking, everything around was friendly, young, so close, everyone - the trees, and the sky, and even the moon, and wanted to think that it will always be so.” In the modal words “it seemed” and “I wanted to think”, the intonation of hope, but also of uncertainty, can be heard with particular clarity.

The style of I.A. Bunin (1870-1953) was characterized by many critics as "bookish", "super-refined", as "brocade prose". These assessments pointed to an important, and perhaps the main stylistic trend in Bunin's work: the "stringing" of words, the selection of synonyms, synonymous phrases for an almost physiological sharpening of the reader's impressions. In the story Mitina love(1924), written in exile, Bunin, depicting the nature of the night, reveals the state of mind of the hero in love: “One day, late in the evening, Mitya went out onto the back porch. It was very dark, quiet, and smelled of a damp field. From behind the night clouds, over the vague outlines of the garden, small stars were tearing. And suddenly somewhere far away something wildly, devilishly hummed and barked, screeching. Mitya shuddered, froze, then cautiously descended from the porch, entered the dark alley, as if guarding him from all sides with hostility, stopped again and began to wait, listen: what is it, where is it - what the garden announced so unexpectedly and terribly ? An owl, a forest scarecrow, making his love, and nothing else, he thought, and his whole body froze as if from the invisible presence of the devil himself in this darkness. And suddenly again there was a booming Who shook Mitina's soul howl,somewhere close, in the tops of the alley, crackled, rustled- and the devil silently moved somewhere else in the garden. There at first he barked, then began pitifully, imploringly, like a child, whining, weeping, flapping his wings and screaming with painful pleasure, began to squeal, roll with such scurrilous laughter, as if he were being tickled and tortured. Mitya, trembling all over, stared into the darkness with both eyes and ears. But suddenly the devil broke loose, choked and, cutting through the dark garden with a deathly-languishing cry, as if through the earth fell through. Having waited in vain for the resumption of this love horror for a few more minutes, Mitya quietly returned home - and all night he was tormented through sleep by all those painful and disgusting thoughts and feelings into which his love had turned in March in Moscow. The author is looking for more and more accurate, piercing words to show the confusion of Mitya's soul.

The styles of Soviet literature reflected the profound psychological and linguistic shifts that took place in post-revolutionary Russia. One of the most indicative in this regard is the “skazovy” style of M.M. Zoshchenko (1894–1958). "Skazovy" - i.e. imitating someone else's (common, slang, dialect) speech. in the story aristocrat(1923), the narrator, a plumber by profession, recalls a humiliating episode of a failed courtship. Wanting to protect himself in the opinion of his listeners, he immediately refuses what once attracted him in "respectable" ladies, but resentment is guessed behind his refusal. Zoshchenko in his style imitates the rude inferiority of the narrator's speech not only in the use of purely colloquial phrases, but also in the most “chopped”, meager phrase: “I, my brothers, do not like women who are in hats. If a woman is wearing a hat, if she has phildecox stockings, or a pug in her arms, or a golden tooth, then such an aristocrat is not a woman at all for me, but a smooth place. And at one time, of course, I was fond of one aristocrat. He walked with her and took her to the theater. Everything worked out in the theatre. In the theater, she deployed her ideology in its entirety. And I met her in the courtyard of the house. At the meeting. I look, there is a sort of frya. Stockings on her, a gilded tooth.

It is worth paying attention to Zoshchenko's use of a placard-denunciatory turnover "deployed her ideology in its entirety." Zoshchenko's tale opened up a view of the changing everyday consciousness of Soviet people. Andrei Platonov (1899–1951) artistically comprehended another type of change in attitude in his own style and poetics. His characters painfully think and express their thoughts. The painful difficulty of utterance, expressed in deliberate irregularities of speech and physiologically specific metaphors, is the main characteristic of the Platonic style and its entire artistic world. At the beginning of the novel Chevengur(1928-1930), dedicated to the period of collectivization, depicts a woman in labor, the mother of several children: “The woman in labor smelled of beef and raw dairy heifer, and Mavra Fetisovna herself did not smell anything from weakness, she was stuffy under a multi-colored patchwork blanket - she bared her full leg in wrinkles of old age and maternal fat; on the leg were visible yellow spots of some dead suffering and blue thick veins of stiffened blood, growing tight under the skin and ready to tear it to get out; along one vein, similar to a tree, you can feel how a heart is beating somewhere, with an effort driving blood through narrow collapsed gorges of the body". The heroes of Platonov do not leave the feeling of a “broken” world, and therefore their vision is so bizarrely sharpened, that is why they see things, bodies and themselves so strangely.

In the second half of the 20th century the cult of a genius and a masterpiece (a completed work as an artistic world), the idea of ​​a “feeling” reader are greatly shaken. Technical reproducibility, industrial setting, the triumph of trivial culture call into question the traditional sacred or traditionally intimate relationship between the author, work and reader. The warmth of cohesion in the secret of communication, which Tolstoy wrote about, begins to seem archaic, too sentimental, "too human." It is being replaced by a more familiar, less responsible and generally playful type of relationship between the author, the work and the reader. Under these circumstances, the style becomes more and more alienated from the author, becomes an analogue of a “mask”, and not a “living face”, and essentially returns to the status that was given to it in antiquity. Anna Akhmatova said aphoristically about this in one of the quatrains of the cycle Secrets of the craft (1959):

Do not repeat - your soul is rich -
What was once said
But maybe poetry itself -
One great quote.

Understanding literature as a single text, on the one hand, facilitates the search for and use of already found artistic means, "foreign words", but, on the other hand, imposes a tangible responsibility. Indeed, in dealing with stranger just showing up his, the ability to appropriately use borrowed. The poet of the Russian emigration G.V. Ivanov very often in his later work resorted to allusions (hints) and direct quotations, realizing this and openly playing a game with the reader. Here is a short poem from Ivanov's last book of poems Posthumous diary (1958):

What is inspiration?
- So ... Unexpectedly, slightly
Shining inspiration
Divine wind.
Above the cypress in the sleepy park
Azrael flaps its wings -
And Tyutchev writes without a blot:
The Roman orator spoke...

The last line turns out to be the answer to the question asked in the first line. For Tyutchev, this is a special moment of "visiting the muse", and for Ivanov, Tyutchev's line itself is a source of inspiration.

Style

(from Latin stilus, stylus - a pointed stick for writing, then - the manner of writing, the originality of the syllable, the way of speech). In linguistics, there is no single definition of the concept of S., which is due to the multidimensional nature of the phenomenon itself and its study from various points of view.

In Russian studies, the most common formulations of the term-concept "S.", based on its definition by V.V. Vinogradov (1955): "Style is a socially conscious and functionally determined, internally integrated set of methods of using, selecting and combining means of verbal communication in the sphere of one or another nationwide, nationwide language, correlative with other similar ways of expression that serve other purposes. perform other functions in the speech social practice of a given people". Based on this formulation, S. is defined as socially conscious, historically established, united by a certain function. by appointment and fixed by tradition for one or another of the most general spheres of social life, a system of language units of all levels and ways of their selection, combination and use. This is a function. variety, or variant, Rus. lit. language, which differs in the ways of its use in different areas of communication and creates different speech styles as compositional text structures.

S. is a fundamental concept of stylistics, and as it developed, different understandings of S.

S. is one of the early concepts of humanitarian knowledge, presented in the rhetoric and poetics of ancient Greece and Rome, and even earlier in Indian poetics. Until the Middle Ages, the concept of syllables as a peculiarity of speech is associated with the question of normativity, namely, what syllable and its means (tropes and figures, the composition of vocabulary, phraseology, syntax) "befits" to be used in different types literature. In the eighteenth century With the advent of a special discipline, stylistics, in the West, S. is defined as the originality of the artist. speech (writer, works, etc.). In the eighteenth century S. also becomes an art history term for a purely individual manner of depiction. This understanding reaches its peak in the era of Lit. romanticism, linking with the concept of a human creator, genius as an integral and inalienable property of it. Wed J.L.L. Buffon: "Style is the man himself." In Hegel, the opposition between manner and style is "removed" in the concept of "originality." In Russian In the language, the term "style" and the variant "calm" appear in the 17th century, in the middle of the 19th century. the term "style" is fixed.

The earliest in Russia was the three-term representation of S. in Russian, dating back to ancient rhetoric. rhetoric of the 17th-18th centuries. and theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov and his contemporaries (see): high - medium - low as sets in each of them of language means in unity (correlation) with the subject of speech, topic, content, group of genres, thereby corresponding to three types of "sayings".

Later, in connection with the collapse in Russian. lit. the language of the system of three styles and the further process of democratization of the language based on the modification of this model of S., the opposition stands out: book S. (see) - colloquial(colloquial-familiar) S. (see) against a neutral background. The stylistic coloring of the bookishness of speech was presented (and is now partially preserved) in writing in the texts of a special (scientific, office-work) and artistic. literature and went back to church-glory. layer of ancient Rus. bookishness, colloquial S. (type) - to oral-colloquial. the speech of the lower classes of the urban population and vernacular.

This model C. traditional(see) are often combined with expressive (Sh. Bally), since here, in relation to the neutral "basis" (common language means), sets of language means are presented with an increase in expressive-stylistic tonality: solemn (rhetorical), sublime, strict, official or its lowering: S. familiar, rude, friendly, informal, activated either in the sphere of book-written official speech and giving it the appropriate "color", or, on the contrary, in colloquial everyday (mainly oral, informal) with its characteristic stylistic coloring(cm.). These tools are resources of stylistic synonymy ( eyes - eyes - peepers; hand - hand - paw; to eat - to eat - to eat). In the twentieth century they are used in art. literature and journalism as a means of creating humor, satire, irony.

However, the expressiveness of speech and its sources are not limited to this aspect (synonymy). The expressiveness of style is understood more broadly: it includes means with various emotional and expressive colors and assessments (sublime, intimately affectionate, derogatory, contemptuous, etc.). Usually these expressive-stylistic features are also determined against the background of neutral (stylistically uncolored) means. A more rigorous structural and semantic version of this model is the understanding of semantics as the connotative side of linguistic units, containing, in addition to the denotative, a variety of expressive-emotional, evaluative, stylistic, associative-figurative meanings and colors that accompany the actual conceptual meaning, conveying the relations assigned to the linguistic units and assessments of speakers to the denotations of the corresponding language units.

Thus, in the period of classicism, the understanding of S. in the period of classicism as a closed system of language means of a certain same type of stylistic "status" (corresponding to the content and genre of the work) based on a three-term division, comes the understanding of S. as a particular color (meaning, more precisely, co-meaning ) in linguistic units against the background of a neutral norm, units that make up stylistic layers in the language system. This aspect is not so much functional as structural-linguistic, studied resources style(see), although when it comes to the use of these means in the process of communication, of course, functionality is found.

However, since the beginning of the nineteenth century. the possibility of constructing a more or less extended utterance, especially a whole work, by means of one stylistic coloring, has receded into the past. When looking at the history of the development of stylistics, this situation was assessed (during the 1954 discussion on stylistics) even as the disappearance of style (if we approach its definition from the point of view of the Lomonosov tradition).

In the first half of the nineteenth century. to designate an individual manner of speech in relation to the S. of the writer, the nomination syllable is used (see V. G. Belinsky and others). This meaning of the term S. is preserved in linguistic stylistics as one of the possible ones to this day. Wed interpretation in dictionaries of the term S. as an individual manner, the way in which a given speech act (or work) is performed - the style of speech of a particular person, especially a writer ( S. Pushkin, S. Gogol).

The term "S." in dictionaries they also denote the generally accepted manner of speech, the way it is performed, characteristic of typed literary texts, including genre varieties, when not only language elements are significant, but also composition and other components of the text ( S. romanticism, classicism; S. to.-l. literary school; S. fable, reportage, feuilleton).

From the middle of the twentieth century in connection with the development funkt. stylistics(see) appears and becomes central in modern science understanding of S. as a functional style. In this case, attention is focused mainly on the speech organization of the text. Taking into account the above definition of style given by V.V. Vinogradov (1955), function. style is a peculiar character of speech of one or another of its social varieties, corresponding to the sphere of communication and activity, correlative with a certain form of consciousness, which is created by the peculiarities of the functioning of language means in this area and a specific speech organization, speech consistency(cm.). (For more details, see: Functional styles in relation to colloquial speech and artistic speech,). Thus, S. is a subjective-objective phenomenon.

The term "functional style" is used in the aspect of not only speech, but also the structure of the language, and then it is defined as varieties of litas that have historically developed in a given language community. language, which are relatively closed systems of linguistic means, regularly functioning in various spheres of social activity.

Sometimes a number of functions styles are combined into a wide range of book speech (scientific, office-business, public, "language of fiction") as opposed to speech, colloquial, everyday.

There is also an actual evaluative definition of S. speech - good S.(compositions) or bad- based on compliance / non-compliance with established ideas about the style norm (see).

With the difference between these understandings of S., they have, however, common, invariant features. This is the presence of a certain originality, a specific characterological feature (not neutrality) in a variety of language / speech or in a set of linguistic means, some deviations from the usual, literal, devoid of connotations (including functional-stylistic) designation of the subject of speech (denotation in a broad sense). sense) in one S. compared to another. The phenomenon of S., stylistic in general, is something peculiar, specific, characteristic of this or that object, a phenomenon that distinguishes it from other objects, phenomena of the same series. This semantic component consistently appears in all meanings of the word "style" in the dictionaries of the modern. Russian language: 1. "A set of features that characterize art ... or an artist's individual style" // "A set of characteristic features, features characteristic of something, distinguishing something." 2. "A set of methods of using the means of language, characteristic of any writer..." 3. "A functional variety of the lit. language..." funkt. style, as mentioned above, is "a peculiar character of speech of one or another of its varieties" // "Features in the construction of speech ..." 4. "A way of doing something, distinguished by a set of peculiar techniques ..." (MAS. T. 4). Note that the nomination "manner" also includes the concept of distinctive features: "The totality of features in the construction of speech and word usage, the manner of verbal presentation" (BAS. T. 4). In addition (which is important for determining the style), it is the presence of principles of selection and combination of language means, their transformation, which are specific in each area of ​​communication, variety of language / speech, due to extralinguistic factors. Differences in styles are determined by the difference in these principles, but S. are not the principles themselves, but the result of their action. Thus, each S. is characterized by the presence of differential signs. Individual S., according to Yu.S. Stepanov, is a "measure of deviations from the neutral norm". Finally, the concept of S. is always associated with its awareness.

S. is not so much a linguistic phenomenon proper (in the narrow sense of the last word, as the structure of a language), but rather a speech phenomenon, characteristic of utterances (texts) and created in them. This is the opinion, for example, M.M. Bakhtin, who states: "The expressive side of linguistic units is not an aspect of the language system" (1979, p. 264), "... the expressiveness of individual words is not a property of the word itself as a language unit and does not follow directly from the meanings of these words" (Ibid., p. 269). If we do not agree with the categorical nature of these statements, then it should be undeniably recognized that the stylistic meanings and shades of words (as their inherent meanings, connotations) are formed in the process of the functioning of words in speech, since, as F. de Saussure correctly noted, "the fact of speech precedes the fact of language."

Thus, S. is created and expressed in speech activity, in the process of using the language and imprinted in the text. S. is one of the essential properties of the text, which are formed and expressed in its speech systemicity, conditioned in a particular area and situation of communication by a certain set extralinguistic style-forming factors(cm.). As a result, it is possible to distinguish - by style - one text (a group of texts) from another; this also applies to individual characteristics of speech. It is wrong to represent the matter only in such a way that the stylistic aspect of the text is created by linguistic means of the same stylistic coloring (with the exception of rare special cases and cases noted in the works of the 18th century).

In an effort to clarify the linguistic concept of "S." the well-known Czechoslovak scientist K. Gausenblas tried to give a deeper characterization of it on the basis of taking into account the broad, common understanding S. (various "areas and forms of human behavior"). As a result, a circle (system) of features was identified that are also essential for style as a concept of linguistics. These are the main features: "Style is a specifically human phenomenon", "the sphere of stylistic phenomena is the sphere of interindividual contact"; "Style is related to human activity, which is characterized by purposefulness ...", "Style should be understood as a certain way, the principle of passing this activity", as a result of which something whole is created "by" selecting the constituent parts and their combination, which are important for characterizing the style " "style is associated with the structure of the created, with a specific principle of its construction", i.e. "style is the properties of the structure of the created" (1967, pp. 70–71). that "stylistic and linguistic phenomena do not stand in the same row: stylistic phenomena are partly included in the composition of linguistic phenomena. In part, they go beyond them "(Ibid., p. 72). Compare with the above point. M. Bakhtin. We emphasize the anthropocentrism of S., associated with its ontological nature (see. Goncharova, 1995).

The formation of the stylistic means of the language and its stylistic varieties is due to the expansion of the functions of lit. language in the process historical development, using lit. language in emerging new areas of activity and communication, as well as in connection with the emergence of various social roles of speakers, etc. S. develops not only due to the ambiguity of linguistic units and the multifunctionality of the language, but also due to other linguistic processes, in particular, borrowings from other languages, social, territorial dialects, and jargons. A rich source for Russian style. lit. the language was Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic); during the period of democratization language in the 19th century. - live colloquial speech, vernacular, partly dialects. Funkts. Russian styles. lit. languages ​​are formed in their basis at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, and then there is only the process of their "crystallization" (grinding) and internal differentiation.

In Russia, the study of S. is associated primarily with the names of M.V. Lomonosov, N.M. Karamzin, V.G. Belinsky, A.N. Veselovsky, A.I. Sobolevsky, A.A. Potebni; in the 20th century - with the works of V.V. Vinogradova, G.O. Vinokura, M.M. Bakhtin, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherby, B.A. Larina, V.M. Zhirmunsky, B.V. Tomashevsky, L.A. Bulakhovsky and a whole galaxy of modern scientists of the Vinogradov school.

The concept of S. linguistic is closely associated with the concept of S. literary - in the study of artistic. texts. The term "S." used in art history, aesthetics, psychology, science of science, cognitive science (cognitive S. - Demyankov, Luzina). In the 50s–70s 20th century the concept of S. thinking, worldview, as tendencies of thought common to science and art of a certain period (M. Born, T. Kuhn, and R. Barth in relation to fiction) is being formalized.

The diversity of modern ideas about S. and its interpretation is evidenced by the results of a survey of scientists from different (mainly Slavic) countries, conducted by prof. Art. Guide and published in Zh. Stylistyka-IV, which presents points of view on the style of K. Gausenblas, F. Danesh, M. Jelink, J. Kraus, B. Hoffman, O.B. Sirotinina, M.N. Kozhina, G.Ya. Solganika and others. For the understanding of S. in foreign S-ke, see: Yu.S. Stepanov, B. Toshovich (2002).

Lit.: Sobolevsky A.I. About style. - Kharkov, 1909; Peshkovsky A.M. Questions of methodology mother tongue, linguistics and stylistics. – M.; L., 1930; Budagov R.A. On the question of language styles, " VYa". - No. 3, 1954; His own: Literary languages ​​and language styles. - M., 1967; Sorokin Yu.S. To the question of the basic concepts of stylistics. - VYa. - 1954. - No. 2; Vinogradov V.V. The results of the discussion of stylistics, " VYa". - No. 1, 1955; His own:. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics. - M., 1963; His own: Essays on the history of Russian literature of the XVII-XIX centuries. - M., 1982; Akhmanova O. S. Essays on General and Russian Lexicology. - M., 1957; Shcherba L.V. Fav. work on the Russian language. - M., 1957; Vinokur G.O. On the tasks of the history of the language // Fav. work in Russian. language. - M., 1959; Bally Sh. French style. - M., 1961; Born M. State of ideas in physics // Physics in the life of my generation. - M., 1963; Gvozdev A.N. Essays on the style of the Russian language. - 3rd ed. - M., 1965; Gauzenblas K. To clarify the concept of "style" and to the question of the scope of stylistic research. - VYa. - 1967. - No. 5; Kozhina M.N. To the bases of func. stylistics. - Perm, 1968; Her: Stylistics of Russian. language. - M., 1993; Kostomarov V.G. Russian language on a newspaper page. - M., 1971; Galperin I.R. On the concepts of "style" and "stylistics". - VYa. - 1973. - No. 3; Vasilyeva A.N. A course of lectures on the style of the Russian language. General concepts ... - M., 1976; Shmelev D.N. Russian language in its functions. varieties. - M., 1977; Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1979; Vinokur T.G. Stylistic patterns. use of language units. - M., 1980; Golovin B.N. Fundamentals of speech culture. Ch. II. - M., 1980; NZL. Issue. IX. - M., 1980; Petrishcheva E.F. Stylistically colored Russian vocabulary. language. - M., 1984; Belchikov Yu.A. Lexical stylistics: problems of studying and teaching. - M., 1988; Same: Style // Rus. lang. Ents.- 2nd ed. - M., 1997; Stepanov Yu.S. Style // LES. - M., 1990; Teliya V.N. Expressiveness as a manifestation of the subjective factor in language and its pragmatic orientation. Mechanisms of expressive coloring of language units // Human factor in language. Language mechanisms of expressiveness. - M., 1991; Losev A.F. Some questions from the history of teaching about style, " Vestnik Mosk. university Ser. 9 - Philology", 1993. - No. 4; Luzina L.G. Cognitive style // KSKT. - M., 1996; Goncharova E.A. Style as an anthropocentric category. Studio Linguistics. No. 8. Word, sentence and text ... - St. Petersburg, 1999; Sirotinina O.B. What is style?, "Stylistyka-IV". – Opole, 1995; Solganik G.Ya. About style, Ibid; Jelinek M., Teze o stylu, Ibid.; Hausenblas K., Styl jazykovych projevu a rozvrstvení jazyka, SaS, XXIII, 1962; Bogołębska B., Proces wyodrębniania się teorii stylu na przełomie wieku XIX na XX, "Stylistyka-II", 1993; Tîshovíh. Functional styles. – Beograd, 2002.

M.N. Kozhina


Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language. - M:. "Flint", "Science". Edited by M.N. Kozhina. 2003 .

Synonyms: