The first Russian ships. Sail (classification, details and names of ship sails) Sail in the old fashioned way 7 letters

The “sail”, often found in the works of many eminent authors, such as Pushkin, Lermontov, Tyutchev, has long since become archaic and has almost completely disappeared from circulation. It is unlikely that today anyone will be able to remember its true, original meaning.

Sail

Sail - an old Slavic, quite often used in Russia and denoting nothing more than a sail, it most likely came from, or in the old manner "wind". In ancient times, the concept of "vetriti" was also used to denote something that produces. The word sail itself, unfortunately, does not have Slavic roots and, according to one of the existing versions, came to us from Greece.

The sail for Russian ships was extremely important, it was taken care of. Only experienced sailors could unfold the sails, tearing a sail is like taking away a hand, they said then.

The first documentary evidence of the existence of the so-called sails is found already in the tenth century in some copies of ancient Russian literature, mainly holy writings that have come down to us.

wind forces

Later, the sail acquired other meanings, already known to us under the name "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", the word sail is used as an appeal to the unstoppable and mighty forces of the wind. It is interesting that, according to the version of modern dictionaries, the word has acquired a completely different, figurative meaning, for example, the stable combination “without a rudder and sails”, which is used in modern language without realizing the true meaning of the words of its constituents, means an element beyond the control of human forces, insurmountable circumstances , or a case that does not have clear goals and clear intentions.

There is an opinion that the wind itself was also called a sail, the word acquired such a form in the lost vocative case.

The word sail in its original meaning is quite common in the great works of literature of the 19th century. Eminent writers and poets honored and often turned to native Russian terminology, enriching and instilling in their contemporaries the culture of communication and respect for the language of their ancestors.

Today, the word sail is not so widespread and belongs to the category of book terms and concepts, unfortunately, modern Russians do not think, and even more often confuse the meaning of an old sail with a wind or even a mill, in rare cases having knowledge of its true meaning, which was put into the creator in him.

The first "ship" made of flexible rods, sheathed in bark and then in leather, was intended for short trips and, according to scientists, was familiar to the Eastern Slavs from ancient times. The wicker basket is quickly replaced by a more comfortable one-tree canoe for swimming. In Russia it was built like this. A cut down huge tree, most often an aspen, an oak or a linden, was given an elongated shape. In order to finally correct the contours of the ship, the resulting deck was steamed and “butchered” with stakes.

Sometimes the core of the deck was pre-cut to a third of the thickness. There was another way to make a deck. Shipbuilders made a crack in a living tree trunk for the entire length of the boat, gradually, year after year, driving wedges and struts into it so as to achieve the desired shape of the future hull. Only after that the tree was cut down, and the excess wood was burned or hollowed out.

From the inside, the deck was filled with water and kept in this state for about a week. After the “water procedures”, fire was laid out along the deck. The tree rebuked, became flexible. Now it was already possible to insert the so-called springs into the hull - primitive lightweight frames. The basis of the skirt was a cocord - hewn spruce ridge, which had a natural curvature. The painstaking work on the boat hull sometimes took up to five years!

The first Russian canoe-odnoderevka was found in 1878-1882. expedition A.A. Inostrantseva on the shore of Lake Ladoga. The age attributed by historians to this small vessel, only 3.5 m long and 0.86 m wide, is enormous - about four and a half thousand years. The Slavs for a long time did not want to part with light one-trees. Archaeological finds confirm that even in modern times, the ancestors of the Russians continued to build boats “in the old fashioned way”, however, at least doubling their size. Frames, which received the right to life only in the 10th century, made it possible to build up the sides of the boat with sheathing, which means making it more spacious. The Russian canoe, sheathed smooth with boards that were planted on spikes, began to be called a nasada. The ancient nasada floated in Russian waters right up to the end of the 15th century, until it was finally supplanted by type-setting ships.

Shuttle-odnoderevka

Sheathing is a method of sheathing wooden ships, in which the joints between the boards were smooth.

The third most time-consuming type of vessel in Ancient Russia was the “padded boat” - the successor to the boat, created in the 10th century. for trading voyages and military campaigns. Compared to her counterparts, she had higher sides. Racks were attached to the sides, and several planks were nailed to them, in turn. Such a simple improvement significantly increased the internal dimensions of the boat, and most importantly, its carrying capacity and stability. A light vessel no more than twenty meters long could take on board no less than 15 tons of cargo. After the completion of the “packed boats”, they were equipped with oars (for rowing and steering), anchors, a mast with a small straight sail and simple rigging. The rapids of the Dnieper, through which the boats were dragged by portage, did not allow the shipbuilders to significantly increase the length of these ships. Despite this, the Russian boats, plowing the waters of the Black Sea up and down, were perfectly adapted for long-distance voyages.

Russian boat

In the ninth century Russian merchants become frequent guests at the Constantinople market. The laws of competition, apparently, acted even then. In the spring of 860 in Constantinople, several Russian merchants were captured. The story of the hostages quickly developed further. Having assembled a powerful flotilla of 250 different ships, the Russians immediately laid siege to Constantinople, more than paying off its treacherous citizens. This and other sea campaigns of the Eastern Slavs to Byzantium undoubtedly did their job: they went on for many years, and the trade of Russian merchants with East and West remained duty-free.

In the growing strength of Kievan Rus in the XII century. large deck boats are ubiquitous. Unlike other types of Slavic ships, they had a solid plank deck that covered the rowers from above. On the equally pointed extremities there was a steering oar - potes, which made it possible, without turning the boat, to quickly change its course. In ancient chronicles, a Russian vessel of this type was called not only a “lodya”, but also a ship, a skedia, a naseda. Of course, twenty meters long, three wide and forty people of the crew - quite a bit for a ship, and yet it was a real ship. Gradually, "Mr. Veliky Novgorod" is coming to the fore among shipbuilding centers. And no wonder: it was through him that the glorious path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” passed (from

Baltic waters along the system of rivers to the Black - the Arabs called it Russian - the sea). Meta and Tvertsa connected the great city with the Volga and the Caspian Sea, Shelon with Pskov, and the Svir and the waterways of Lake Onega with the northeastern countries. In the middle of the 11th century, when the state of Yaroslav the Wise broke up into hostile principalities, the importance of river and sea transit routes was greatly shaken. From that moment on, Novgorod shipbuilding began to develop independently, independently of Kyiv.

Novgorod ship

History has preserved a lot of evidence of the power of the Slavic navy, although the Slavs were not distinguished by the aggressiveness characteristic of many northern peoples. So, throughout the X century. military operations of the Slavs at sea took a total of no more than 9-10 years. But in the middle of the XII century, the Swedish king Eric, who conquered Finland, manages to penetrate the mouth of the Volkhov and besiege the city of Ladoga.

The atrocities of the invaders did not last long. Prince Svyatoslav with the naval squad who came to the rescue defeated the Swedes, capturing 43 out of 55 enemy ships. Subsequently, the Novgorodians brutally took revenge on the strangers for this daring raid. Through the stream of the Stockzund, at which Stockholm later grew, they, entering Lake Mellar, attacked the rich coastal city of Sigtuna. The famous Sigtun trophy - a luxurious bronze gate - still stands in Novgorod, near the southwestern facade of St. Sophia Cathedral.

Kochmar

Novgorodians, who for a long time held in their hands the key exits to the White Sea, were forced to sail in extreme conditions, protecting their sea routes and trades from rivals. Gradually, a new type of ships knocked together from boards is being formed, convenient for moving by portage from one river to another. They were a flat-bottomed light shitik and a boat "ushki". Rumors about river ears started in the 13th century, when the freemen of Novgorod began to indulge in frequent raids on their Slavic neighbors.

These were light, shallow-draft rowing punts capable of accommodating up to 30 warriors. Abalone up to 14 meters long was built more thoroughly. The set and plating of the vessel were made of durable pine wood. The shipbuilders carved a bar keel from a single tree trunk. The ship had stems - straight vertical or with a slight outward slope (the stem was higher than the stern). The frames were made up of two or three branches, hewn along the plane of contact with the skin. In the bow and stern, holds with hatches were fenced off with bulkheads, where food and valuable luggage were stored. The middle part of the ushkuy was left open for rowers.

Fishing, which was in a special honor among the Slavs, brought the Novgorod settlers to the shores of the northern seas.

Pomeranian karbas

A straight sail is a sail that is fixed across the vessel with the help of yards.

An oblique sail is a sail that is attached along the ship.

Gradually, the Pomors become the same masters of the Baltic as the Normans. Starting from the XII century. Pomors, who traded foxes, reached Grumant (Svalbard), and colonies of Slavs appeared even on the shores of England. The harsh North dictated its conditions to the shipbuilders, and the Pomors began to build new, unlike the others, ships: aspens, ranypins, kochmars, shnyaks. The fishing shnyaks did not have a common deck. To the bow of the transverse bulkhead was placed a mast about 6 m high with a straight or sprint sail.

The largest (about 12 m) shnyaks carried a low second mast with a gaff sail at the stern. The vessel was equipped with a mounted rudder with a long tiller. Fast aspen boats, equipped with a crew of shnyaks, transported a rich catch to the coast. The most popular among small vessels were sailing and rowing karbas. Karbas could have a deck, or he could do without it, but skids, attached on both sides of the bottom parallel to the keel, always remained an obligatory attribute of this vessel. With the help of skids, the ship moved easily on the ice.

In the invention of the windthrower, an ancient device for determining the course of a ship, historians give the palm to the Pomors. The device of the windthrower was simple: rods were inserted into a wooden disk - one in the middle and 32 around the circumference. The main points were called akin to the four cardinal points. Bearing with a windthrower the signs specially installed on the shore, the coast-dwellers determined the course of the vessel. In the absence of landmarks, the course was set at noon according to the sun, and at night - according to the North Star.

Pomeranian Koch

Sprint sail - a quadrangular sail stretched diagonally by a sprit sail.

Gaff sail - an oblique sail attached to the gaff.

or varom and closed with slats on staples. The underwater part of the ship's hull had a rounded shape, the bow and stern were somewhat raised. Due to the streamlined shape, the koch, caught in the ice vice, seemed to be “squeezed out” to the surface, while remaining unharmed. The anchor was raised with the help of a gate installed on the deck. In the stern they arranged a treasury - a small cabin for the captain and clerk. The ship's crew, consisting of only 10-15 people, not counting the fishermen, was located in the hold. The uncomplicated sailing armament included a mast and a straight sail, sewn from leather at first, and then canvas. The oars, sail and tailwind allowed the koch to reach a speed of 6-7 knots. To communicate with the shore, there were always one or two small boats on the cochs.

Pomeranian ship

Pomeranian kochi, which remained “in service” for many centuries, laid the foundation for the further development of Russian navigation. It is these ships, in the XVIII century. having finally conquered the water space along the northern coasts of Europe and Asia, they became the prototype of the navy created under Peter I. They also played a significant role in the geographical discoveries of the 16th-17th centuries. (Let us recall, for example, S. Dezhnev, who first descended on a koch along the Indigirka to the Arctic Ocean and reached the Alazeya River by sea).

But experts consider the sea (in the annals of the 13th century “overseas”) boat, armed with three masts, to be the fastest ship that sailed long distances in northern waters. The first two of them carried straight rake sails, and the last one carried gaff sails. Tailwind, blowing almost half a thousand square meters. meters of sailing equipment of a sea boat, forced it to pass up to 300 km per day. At the same time, she could carry up to 200 tons of cargo. (By the way, in terms of displacement and carrying capacity, Slavic sea boats were significantly superior to other northern ships. So, the San Antonio of the famous F. Magellan could take on board only 120 tons.)

In length, the boat reached 18-25m, and in width - 5-8m. "Overseas" boats were the first fully stacked flat-bottomed ships with a transom stern and a mounted rudder. The ship's hull was divided by bulkheads into three compartments. The crew lived in the forward compartment. There was also a brick oven for cooking. The aft compartment was assigned to the helmsman. In the middle between the bow and stern was a cargo hold. The set of the hull was fastened with dowels or nails, after which it was sheathed with smooth planks.

Pomeranian boat

Transom stern - stern in the form of a flat cut.

One of the oldest and most famous dynasties of Novgorod shipbuilders is the Amosov family. In the XIV century. Trifon Amosov, the grandson of one of the first Russian sailors who hunted animals in the White and Kara Seas, moved from Novgorod to Kholmogory, where he began the construction of a shipyard, which became the mother of the first large Russian ships sailing in the northern ice. The hulls of the largest of them were given a shape reminiscent of the contours of modern icebreakers. The bow and stern of the Kholmogory ships were made with a high lift, and the sides - with a significant collapse. The ship was steered with a hinged rudder. The traditions of the glorious Amosov family were followed by their descendants, who built in the 19th century. such famous ships as the frigate "Pallada", the 110-gun ship "Rostislav", the brig "Mercury" and many other ships of the Russian fleet.

sails called connected panels of canvas, which perceive the pressure of the wind and are used to propel the ship. The totality of all sails is called sailing equipment. ship. By sail is understood both the total area of ​​\u200b\u200ball sails, and the types of sails carried by a given vessel or a boat (Latin, straight, storm, etc.). Distinguish bow sail, the area of ​​the sails that are to the bow from the vertical axis of rotation ship, and aft - the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe sails, which are located aft of this axis. These terms are used in the study of the effect that the corresponding sails have on the yaw and agility of the ship.

sail classification

Sails are divided depending on their shape and attachment point.
The shape distinguishes between rectangular, trapezoidal and triangular sails.
Depending on the place of attachment:
sails upper edge, which is attached to the yard;
sails one of the sides, which is attached to the mast;
sails, in which one of the sides is attached to a cable.
In addition, all sails can be divided into straight and oblique - the first are placed across, and the second along the diametrical plane of the vessel. Oblique sails are divided into latin, gaff, jib and staysails.

Straight sails

Straight sails have a quadrangular - rectangular or trapezoidal shape and are attached to the rail with their upper side. The underside, usually slightly curved towards the top, is attached to the underlying yard or deck of the ship with the help of sheets and tacks. Straight sails are easy to mount and set, it is easy to divide into smaller ones. They are widespread, but it is extremely inconvenient for a vessel to maneuver with them, since the smallest (effective) angle between the wind direction and the diametrical plane of the bow of the vessel is approximately 67 degrees. Vessels with such sails are the five-masted ship Royal Clipper, the four-masted barque Kruzenshtern. Depending on the yard to which the sail is attached, there are: fock, fore-marseilles (lower and upper), fore-bramsels (lower and upper), main-bramsels (lower and upper) and main-bom-bramsel; mizzen, cruiselles (lower and upper), cruises-bramsleys (lower and upper) and cruises-bom-bramssels. (Fig. 1)

1 - headmast-staysail; 2 - middle jib; 3 - jib; 4 - bom-jib; 5 - fork; 6 - lower fore-Marseille; 7 - upper fore-Marseille; 8 - lower fore - brahmsel; 9 - upper fore-bramsel; 10 - fore-bom-bramsel; 11 - for-trumsel; 12 - grotto; 13 - lower main-bramsel; 14 - upper mainsail; 15 - lower main-bramsel; 16 - upper mainsail; 17 - main-bom-bramsel; 18 - mainsail; 19 - main munsel (a small sail that was used on large sailing ships); 20 - mizzen; 21 - lower kruysel; 22 - upper kruysel; 23 - lower cruise-bramsel; 24 - upper cruise-bramsel; 25 - cruise-bom-bramsel; 26 - cruise-trumsel; 27 - counter mizzen; 28 - for-under-fox; 29 - for-mars-lisel; 30 - for-bram-lisel; 31 - for-bom-brahm-lisel;

Straight sails earlier they were also installed on the blinda-topmast (bom-blinda-boven), as well as on the blinda- and bom-blinda-yards (blind under the bowsprit and bom-blind under the jib). Their feature was made two or three holes for the drainage of water that fell on the sail. Forecast, mainsail and mizzen are called lower, or storm sails, while the rest - marseilles, bramsels and bom-bramsels - are upper. (Fig. 2)

set of direct sails

I - ordinary with one topsail: 1 - mainsail, 2 - topsail, 3 - bramsail, 4 - upper bramsail;
II - with lower and upper marseilles: 1 - mainsail, 2 - lower marseille, 3 - upper marseille, 4 - lower marseille, 5 - upper bramsel, 6 - bom-bramsel;

latin sails

latin sails these are triangular sails, tied to the yard with a long side; in the diametrical plane of the vessel, towards the stern, they are stretched with the help of a sheet. Latin sails are oblique. They allow the ship to sail at an angle of 20 degrees relative to the ship's course and wind direction. Latin sails are named depending on belonging to a particular mast, namely: Latin foresail, mainsail and mizzen. The largest sail used on galleys was called "bastardo", the middle one - "borda", the smallest "marabotto". Each of the sails was set depending on the strength of the wind. In bad weather, a straight storm sail was raised on the "fortune yard". Until the end of the 18th century, on ships with direct sails, the mizzen mast carried the Latin mizzen. Already from the middle of the 18th century, two forms of mizzen began to be used: traditional triangular (the so-called French-type mizzen) and trapezoidal, fixed with its upper side on the yardarm, and the front, vertical, on the mast (English-type mizzen). The mizzen of this form was similar to a gaff sail - a trysel. (Fig. 3)

hafel sails

hafel sails have a trapezoidal shape and are divided into proper gaff sails (trisails), gulf topsails, Luger or rake and sprint. Trysail has the shape of an irregular trapezoid, which is attached with its upper edge to the mizzen hafel, the lower edge to the mizzen boom and the vertical side to the mast or trisel mast. Gulf topsail - a triangular sail, which is attached to the mizzen gaff with its lower side, and to the topmast with its vertical side. Triseli they are placed on the mizzen-masts of ships with direct sails and on all the masts of a gaff schooner. On tenders, the trisail and gulf topsail are currently replaced by a single triangular sail, the vertical side of which runs along the mast along a special groove or shoulder strap, and the lower side is attached to the boom. In the UK, it was called Bermuda.

Luger or rake sails are a kind of hafel: their upper side is attached to a small rail, the halyard of which is fixed to a third of the length of the rail, counting from the front kick. They are called “tretyaks”. The front lower corner of the sail is pulled towards the bow, and the rear - towards the stern. There is also a quarter. This is the name of the luger sail, the front lower corner of which is attached near the mast, and the halyard is one quarter of the length of the rake, counting from the front kick. Sprint sails are quadrangular sails with a sharp rear nock angle, which is stretched by a diagonally set stock - sprint. The lower end of the sprint rests against the line on the mast, and the upper end rests against the rear corner of the sail. Previously, gaff sails were divided into gaff sails with a hafel and a boom (brigantine); gaff sails without a boom; sprint sails, similar to the above, called "livarda" - after the name of the sprint; luger sails, identical to the Tretyaks, and billanders, are also similar to the Tretyaks. Billander was the main sail of the ships that the British and Dutch used as merchant ships. These were two-masted ships with a very long trapezoidal sail, which hung on a small yardarm. Oblique sails include triangular sails: guari and large spherical spinnakers, mounted on the bow with a shot - a spinnaker boom - and used with a fair wind. This sail is considered optional. (Fig. 4)

Staysails

These triangular sails go along the stays, from which they got the name staysails (German stag - headstay, segel - sail). Staysails, located between the fore and main masts, are divided into the following: mainsail staysail (very rarely used), mainsten staysail (called “coal”, because the smoke from the galley pipe polluted it), mainsail-bram-staysail and mainsail -bom-brahm-staysail. Between the main and mizzen masts they put an apsel, or “mizzen staysail”; cruise-wall-staysail; cruise-bram-staysail and cruise-bom-bram-staysail (Fig. 5). Previously, the following staysails were distinguished: mainsail, mainsail, mainsail, “second” or “small” mainsail, staysail (middle staysail); main-bram-staysail, cruise-staysail or "cruise-jib"; cruise-wall-staysail, cruise-bram-staysail and the “second” cruise-bram-staysail (rarely used).

Cleaver

These triangular sails are placed between the foremast and the bowsprit, sometimes directly on the stays or lifelines specially stretched for them. Cleavers appeared in the 18th century.

Modern sailing ships, which have a long jib, can carry the following jib: on the forestay - a storm fore-topmast staysail or fore staysail (raised during a storm; in the 18th century, a double sail or “storm jib” was set in these cases); on the fore-stan-stay - fore-topmast-staysail; on rails - middle jib, jib or bom-jib. Sometimes a sixth jib is also used, which goes along the for-bom-bram-stay. With a small jib, sailing ships carried four jibs: fore-topmast-staysail, middle jib and bom-jib (Fig. 6 b). On tenders and yachts they put a special jib, the lower edge of which is of considerable length. Such jib called "Genoa" (Genoese staysail). Military ships, as a rule, had four jibs: fore-topmast-staysail, or "small jib"; middle jib, jib, or "second jib" or "false jib"; bom-jib, or "third jib".

Additional sails

Sails that are added to the ship's main square sails to increase speed in light winds are called additional sails. These include: trapezoidal foxes and bram-foxels, which are placed on the sides of the marseilles and brahmselves, triangular or quadrangular under-foxels, which are placed on the sides of the foreground and mainsail (Fig. 7 or 8).

Previously, canvas was also called additional, which was attached to direct sails from the sides, and sometimes from below. These are foxes or bonnets. Distinguished: fore- and grotto-bonnets (under-foxels), fore- and grotto-mars-bonnets, fore- and grotto-bram-bonnets. Sometimes bonnets or foxes were also placed near the mizzen and the kruysel. During the XIV-XVI centuries, the bonnets were fastened from below directly to the lower sails, including the Latin mizzen. With the introduction of reefs, they fell out of use (Fig. 6).

Storm sails

In stormy conditions, it is common to reduce the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe sails in accordance with the strength of the wind. Storm sails include fore topmast staysail, storm fore topmast staysail, lower topsails, reefed mainsail, mainsail staysail and reefed mizzen.

sail details

Details of straight sails

The sails consist of several parallel panels of canvas, overlapped and sewn together with a double seam. The distance between the seams is 2-3 cm. The edges of the sail are folded and stitched, so they are usually double. A vegetable or flexible steel cable, called a lyktros, is sewn along the edges of the sail. The upper edge of the sail, which is tied to the yard, is called the upper luff or “head”, the lateral vertical edges are called the lateral luffs and the lower edge is the luff or “sole” (Fig. 9).

The upper corners of the sail are called knots, the lower corners are called clews. (Fig. 10). To strengthen the sail in the most stressed places, strips of canvas are sewn. If they run parallel to the luff, then they are called bows, if - obliquely, then - bows. The clew and nok angles and the lyktros are additionally sheathed with leather. Reefs are called a horizontal row of ties - reef seasons, threaded through the sail, which allow, if necessary, to reduce its area. When taking reefs, the canvas between the yard and the corresponding reef bow is rolled up, and the resulting roll is tied with reef seasons. This method of taking reefs has been preserved to this day.

Eyelets pass along the upper luff of the sail, through which small pieces of line are threaded - revants, which serve to fasten the sail to the yard rail. (Fig. 11) The sail is superimposed on the yard and fastened with small tips, the so-called spanning seasons, which are tied to the rail of the yard. The shirt of the laid sail is fixed with a triangular piece of canvas tied to the middle of the yard.

vintage sails

Details vintage sails had the same distinguishing features and the same designations as the details of modern sails. So, on a straight sail, they distinguished: panels or upper luff, “sides” (side luffs), “legs” (lower luff), clew and nock corners. There were "head", "side" and "foot" lyktros. To reinforce the sail, they sewed bows, stop plates, reef bows with reef gata for reef seasons, etc.

Sail details

I - lower sail or storm; II - Marseille; III - brahmsel;
1 - lyktros of the upper luff; 2 - lyktros of lateral luffs; 3 - reef-roll-gels; 4 - reef seasons; 5 - canvas of the corresponding reef; 6 - revengers; 7 - reef - bows; 8 - reef gates; 9 - krengels boats; 10 - filing; 11 - stop pay; 12 - revants of the new angle; 13 - upper luff; 14 - side luffs; 15 - luff lyktros; 16 - krengels spruyta bowline; (Fig. 12)

full sailing armament of a three-masted vessel of the 17th - 18th centuries

1 - grotto; 2 - fork; 3 - marseilles (main-marseille, fore-marseille or cruysel); 4 - brahmsel; 5 - bom-brahm-sel; 6 - blind or bom-blind; 7 - mizzen; 8 - Mars-fox; 9 - mainsail; 10 - mainsail-stay-sail; 11 - bram-lisel; 12 - under - fox; 13 - fore-topmast-staysail; 14 - bom-jib; 15 - jib; 16 - middle jib; (Fig. 13)

armament of direct sails on a ship of the 18th - early 19th centuries(Fig. 14)

The sail was attached directly to the yard with the help of revants, which passed through the grommets of the luff. On the revenge, so that he did not jump out of the grommet, two knots were made. In a similar way, reef seasons were fixed in the reef gates. The hoses were applied in opposite directions and then their ends were tied together. (Fig. 15)

Details of latin sails

latin sails are sewn from a canvas cloth, and have folded edges sheathed with lyktros. The luff of the sail, which is attached to the yard, is called oblique, the stern is the back and the last is the bottom (Fig. 16)

Jib details

1 - cloth; 2 - filing; 3 - lyktros; 4 - boots; 5 - luff; 6 - luff; 7 - lower luff; 8 - tack angle; 9 - kick angle; 10 - clew; 11 - eyelets for attaching raxes; 12 - krengels;

The upper corner of the sail is called the halyard, the lower front corner is the tack, and the lower rear corner is the clew. Also called details of staysails and jibs. (Fig. 17)

latin sails fastened to the yards with the help of a running end - a slack line that passes through the eyelets of the sail and around the yard with tightening the loops with a special knot. (Fig. 18)

Details of gaff sails

hafel sails also sewn from canvas panels and have folded edges around the perimeter. Sheathed with lyktros with appropriate reefs, krengels, bows and bows. The leech, which is attached to the gaff, is called the upper or oblique, the leech, which is attached to the mast, is called the front (standing), rear (clew) and last (lower). gaff sail joins the mast with wooden or iron hoops - segars. (Fig. 19)

Trisel details

1 - cloth; 2 - boat; 3 - lyktros; 4 - canvas of the corresponding reef; 5 - reef bows; 6 - clew reef-krengels; 7 - tack reef krengels; 8 - upper luff; 9 - luff; 10 - luff; 11 - lower luff; 12 - knock-benzel angle; 13 - clew; 14 - tack angle; 15 - upper tack angle; 16 - eyelets for slack line;

Canvas for making sails

Sail sewn from linen, hemp or cotton fabrics. The latter have only transverse threads of cotton, longitudinal (warp) - hemp. There are five varieties of such fabrics: “katun” (for shebek sails and small ships), double “katun” for topsails and ship awnings, ordinary “katun” for boats, simple “katun” for shebek and “katun” with small white and blue squares for tents and curtains. Sometimes canvas "melistukh" was used. It was made in Beaufort and Augers in the departments of Mayenne and Loire. There were two types of fabric: thin and lighter for topsails, staysails and jibs, and coarser and more durable for topsails, lower staysails, etc. Canvas always had a light gray color. For sewing sails, special sailing threads are used.

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