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What are the main rocks that make up the earth's crust? Pear figure - what should you wear and what should you refuse? Influence of displacements of lithospheric plates on the formation of relief

The pear shape is characterized by narrow shoulders, small chest and wide hips. If this is your body type, check out what you should wear and what you should avoid. We will advise you on how to focus on the best. But also skillfully hide any figure flaws.

The figure of a pear for many of us is far from uncommon. However, it is enough to know a few simple tricks, thanks to which we will emphasize the correct proportions of the figure. Before you go shopping, read these stylist tips.

Pear figure - characteristic

The pear shape is one of the most popular body types according to men. They have it, in particular, Jennifer Lopez, Shakira, Katie Holmes, Rihanna. Here are the features characteristic of the pear figure:

small breasts,
slim waist,
wide and massive hips,
slender calves.

Pear figure - what to wear?

One of the most common mistakes with such a figure, wearing wide tunics or sweaters. If you are still making this mistake, then it's time to change your wardrobe.

The pear figure, like the hourglass figure, is characterized by a narrow waist. As a result, she is considered the best female trump card. That is why people of this type of shape should wear appropriate clothing.

Also, you must wear skirts (preferably high-waisted), knee-length or longer dresses, high heels.

However, it is worth paying attention to the details. Blouses are fastened with buttons, ruffles at the neckline, round, square and boat necklines, embroidered appliqués. Beads and beads are materials that can be worn without problems.

Pear shape - what should be avoided?

If you have a pear shape, you should refuse:

blouses and jackets that reach the hip line,
short skirts,
tight shorts,
skinny jeans,
ankle length coat.
The earth's crust is the hard surface layer of our planet. It was formed billions of years ago and is constantly changing its appearance under the influence of external and internal forces. Part of it is hidden under water, the other part forms land. The earth's crust is made up of various chemical substances. Let's find out which ones.
planet surface
Hundreds of millions of years after the formation of the Earth, its outer layer from boiling molten rocks began to cool and formed the earth's crust. The surface changed from year to year. Cracks, mountains, volcanoes appeared on it. The wind smoothed them out so that after a while they reappeared, but in other places.
Due to the external and internal solid layer of the planet is heterogeneous. From the point of view of structure, the following elements of the earth's crust can be distinguished:
- geosynclines or folded areas;
- platforms;
- marginal faults and deflections.
Platforms are vast, sedentary areas. Their upper layer (up to a depth of 3-4 km) is covered with sedimentary rocks that occur in horizontal layers. The lower level (foundation) is strongly crumpled. It is composed of metamorphic rocks and may contain igneous inclusions.
Geosynclines are tectonically active areas where mountain building processes take place. They arise at the junction of the ocean floor and the continental platform, or in the trough of the ocean floor between the continents.
If mountains form close to the platform boundary, marginal faults and troughs may occur. They reach up to 17 kilometers in depth and stretch along the mountain formation. Over time, sedimentary rocks accumulate here and mineral deposits (oil, rock and potassium salts, etc.) are formed.
Bark composition
The mass of the bark is 2.8 1019 tons. This is only 0.473% of the mass of the entire planet. The content of substances in it is not as diverse as in the mantle. It is formed by basalts, granites and sedimentary rocks.
99.8% of the earth's crust consists of eighteen elements. The rest account for only 0.2%. The most common are oxygen and silicon, which make up the bulk of the mass. In addition to them, the bark is rich in aluminum, iron, potassium, calcium, sodium, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, chlorine, nitrogen, fluorine, etc. The content of these substances can be seen in the table:
Element name

Oxygen

Aluminum

Manganese

Astatine is considered the rarest element - an extremely unstable and poisonous substance. Tellurium, indium, and thallium are also rare. Often they are scattered and do not contain large clusters in one place.
continental crust
The mainland or continental crust is what we commonly refer to as dry land. It is quite old and covers about 40% of the entire planet. Many of its sections reach an age of 2 to 4.4 billion years.
The continental crust consists of three layers. From above it is covered with a discontinuous sedimentary cover. The rocks in it lie in layers or layers, as they are formed due to the pressing and compaction of salt sediments or microorganism residues.
The lower and older layer is represented by granites and gneisses. They are not always hidden under sedimentary rocks. In some places they come to the surface in the form of crystalline shields.
The lowest layer consists of metamorphic rocks like basalts and granulites. The basalt layer can reach 20-35 kilometers.
oceanic crust
The part of the earth's crust hidden under the waters of the oceans is called oceanic. It is thinner and younger than continental. By age, the crust does not even reach two hundred million years, and its thickness is approximately 7 kilometers.
The continental crust is composed of sedimentary rocks from deep-sea remnants. Below is a basalt layer 5-6 kilometers thick. Below it begins the mantle, represented here mainly by peridotites and dunites.
Every hundred million years the crust is renewed. It is absorbed in subduction zones and re-formed at mid-ocean ridges with the help of outward minerals.

Education
What is the earth's crust made of? Elements of the earth's crust
August 9, 2017
The earth's crust is the hard surface layer of our planet. It was formed billions of years ago and is constantly changing its appearance under the influence of external and internal forces. Part of it is hidden under water, the other part forms land. The earth's crust is made up of various chemicals. Let's find out which ones.
planet surface
Hundreds of millions of years after the formation of the Earth, its outer layer of boiling molten rocks began to cool and formed the earth's crust. The surface changed from year to year. Cracks, mountains, volcanoes appeared on it. The wind smoothed them out so that after a while they reappeared, but in other places.
Due to external and internal processes, the outer solid layer of the planet is not uniform. From the point of view of structure, the following elements of the earth's crust can be distinguished:
- geosynclines or folded areas;
- platforms;
- marginal faults and deflections.
Platforms are vast, sedentary areas. Their upper layer (up to a depth of 3-4 km) is covered with sedimentary rocks that occur in horizontal layers. The lower level (foundation) is strongly crumpled. It is composed of metamorphic rocks and may contain igneous inclusions.
Geosynclines are tectonically active areas where mountain building processes take place. They arise at the junction of the ocean floor and the continental platform, or in the trough of the ocean floor between the continents.
If mountains form close to the platform boundary, marginal faults and troughs may occur. They reach up to 17 kilometers in depth and stretch along the mountain formation. Over time, sedimentary rocks accumulate here and mineral deposits (oil, rock and potassium salts, etc.) are formed.
Bark composition
The mass of the bark is 2.8 1019 tons. This is only 0.473% of the mass of the entire planet. The content of substances in it is not as diverse as in the mantle. It is formed by basalts, granites and sedimentary rocks.
99.8% of the earth's crust consists of eighteen elements. The rest account for only 0.2%. The most common are oxygen and silicon, which make up the bulk of the mass. In addition to them, the bark is rich in aluminum, iron, potassium, calcium, sodium, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, chlorine, nitrogen, fluorine, etc. The content of these substances can be seen in the table:
Element name

Oxygen

Aluminum

Manganese

Astatine is considered the rarest element - an extremely unstable and poisonous substance. Tellurium, indium, and thallium are also rare. Often they are scattered and do not contain large clusters in one place.
continental crust
The mainland or continental crust is what we commonly refer to as dry land. It is quite old and covers about 40% of the entire planet. Many of its sections reach an age of 2 to 4.4 billion years.
The continental crust consists of three layers. From above it is covered with a discontinuous sedimentary cover. The rocks in it lie in layers or layers, as they are formed due to the pressing and compaction of salt sediments or microorganism residues.

The lower and older layer is represented by granites and gneisses. They are not always hidden under sedimentary rocks. In some places they come to the surface in the form of crystalline shields.
The lowest layer consists of metamorphic rocks like basalts and granulites. The basalt layer can reach 20-35 kilometers.
oceanic crust
The part of the earth's crust hidden under the waters of the oceans is called oceanic. It is thinner and younger than continental. By age, the crust does not even reach two hundred million years, and its thickness is approximately 7 kilometers.
The continental crust is composed of sedimentary rocks from deep-sea remnants. Below is a basalt layer 5-6 kilometers thick. Below it begins the mantle, represented here mainly by peridotites and dunites.
Every hundred million years the crust is renewed. It is absorbed in subduction zones and re-formed at mid-ocean ridges with the help of outward minerals.

Before talking about what the earth's crust consists of, we can recall what is supposedly the constituent parts of everything Presumably - because man has not yet been able to penetrate deeper than this earth's crust into the center of the earth. Even the entire thickness of the bark could only be "picked".
Scientists assume, build hypotheses based on the laws of physics, chemistry and other sciences, and according to these data, we have a certain picture of the structure of the entire planet, as well as what large elements the earth's crust consists of. Geography in grades 6-7 gives students precisely these theories in a form facilitated for immature minds.
Due to a small share of data and a large baggage of various laws, planetary models are built in the same way. solar system, and even stars that are far from us. What follows from this? Mainly that you have an absolute right to doubt all this.
Layers of planet Earth
In addition to having layers, the entire earth also consists of three layers. Such a layered culinary masterpiece. The first of these is the core; it has a solid part and a liquid part. It is the movement of the liquid part in the core that presumably creates a bit hot here - the temperature reaches values up to 5000 degrees Celsius.
The second is the mantle. It connects the core and the earth's crust. The mantle also has several layers, namely three, and the upper one, adjacent to the earth's crust, is magma. It is directly related to the question of what large elements the earth's crust consists of, since hypothetically it is on it that these largest elements "float". We can talk about its existence with a more or less high degree of probability, since during volcanic eruptions it is this hot substance that comes to the surface, destroying all plant and animal life that is on the slope of the volcano.
And, finally, the third layer of the earth is the earth's crust: the solid layer of the planet, located outside the hot "insides" of the Earth, on which we are used to walking, traveling and living in general. The thickness of the earth's crust, in comparison with the other two layers of the earth, is negligible, but nevertheless it is possible to characterize what large elements the earth's crust consists of, and also to understand its composition.
What are the layers of the earth's crust. Its main chemical elements
The earth's crust also consists of layers - there is basalt, granite and sedimentary. Interestingly, in the chemical composition of the earth's crust, 47% is oxygen.
The substance, which is essentially a gas, combines with other elements and creates a solid crust. Other elements in this case are silicon, aluminum, iron and calcium; the remaining elements are present in minute fractions.
Division into parts by thickness in different areas
It has already been said that the earth's crust is much thinner than the lower mantle or core. If we approach the question of what large elements the earth's crust consists of, precisely in relation to thickness, we can divide it into oceanic and continental. These two parts differ significantly in their thickness, and the oceanic one is about three times, and in some places ten times (if we talk about averages) thinner than the mainland.
What is the difference between the continental and oceanic crust
In addition, the zones of land and oceans differ in layers. Different sources indicate different data, we will give one option. So, according to these data, the continental crust consists of three layers, among which there is a basalt layer, a granite layer and a layer of sedimentary rocks. The plains of the earth's continental crust reach a thickness of 30-50 km, in the mountains these figures can rise to 70-80 km. According to the same source, the oceanic crust consists of two layers. A granite ball falls out, leaving only the upper sedimentary and lower basalt. The thickness of the earth's crust in the region of the oceans is approximately from 5 to 15 kilometers.
Simplified and averaged data as the basis for training
These are the most general and simplified descriptions, because scientists are constantly working to study the features of the surrounding world, and the latest data indicate that the earth's crust in different places has a structure that is much more complicated than the usual standard scheme of the earth's crust that we study at school. Here in many places of the continental crust, for example, there is another layer - diorite.
It is also interesting that these layers are not perfectly even, as is schematically depicted in geographical atlases or in other sources. Each layer can be wedged into another, or kneaded in some cut. In principle, there can be no ideal model of the earth's scheme, for the same reason that volcanic eruptions occur: there, under the earth's crust, something is constantly in motion and has very high temperatures.
All this can be learned if you connect your life with the sciences of geology and geophysics. You can try to follow scientific progress through scientific journals and articles. But without a certain amount of knowledge, this can turn out to be a very difficult task, and therefore there is a certain basis that is taught in schools without any explanation that this is just an approximate model.
Presumably, the earth's crust consists of "pieces"
Scientists at the beginning of the 20th century put forward the theory that the earth's crust is not monolithic. Therefore, it is possible to find out what large elements the earth's crust consists of according to this theory. It is assumed that the lithosphere consists of seven large and several small plates that slowly float on the surface of magma.
These movements create a catastrophic kind of phenomena that occur on our earth with great intensity in certain places. There are areas between the lithospheric plates, which are called "seismic belts". It is in these areas highest level restlessness, if I may say so. An earthquake and all the ensuing consequences of this is one of the clear signs that demonstrates
Influence of displacements of lithospheric plates on the formation of relief
What large elements the earth's crust consists of, which moving parts are more stable and which are more mobile, throughout the entire creation of the earth's relief, influenced its formation. The structure of the lithosphere and the characteristics of the seismic regime distribute the entire lithosphere into stable areas and mobile belts. The first are characterized by flat planes without huge depressions, hills and similar relief variations. They are also called abyssal plains. In principle, this is the answer to the question of what large elements the earth's crust consists of, what stable primary objects it is formed from. The earth's crust underlies all continents. The boundaries of these plates are easily visible by the zones of mountain formation, as well as by the degree of intensity of earthquakes. The most active places on our planet, where earthquakes and many active volcanoes are located, are the locations of Japan, the islands of Indonesia, the Aleutian Islands, the South American Pacific coast.
Are the continents bigger than we used to think?
That is, simply put, what the earth's crust consists of is pieces of the lithosphere, which move more or less through magma. And the boundaries of these "pieces" do not always coincide with the boundaries of the continents. Technically, they often never match. In addition, we are used to hearing that the oceans account for approximately 70% of the surface, and the continental component - only 30%. IN geographically it is, but here's what's interesting - in terms of geology, the continents account for about 40%. Ten percent of the continental crust is covered by sea and ocean waters.

Plan:

Introduction 2

1. General information about the structure of the Earth and the composition of the earth's crust 3

2. Types of rocks that make up the earth's crust 4

2.1. Sedimentary rocks 4

2.2. Igneous rocks 5

2.3. Metamorphic rocks 6

3. The structure of the earth's crust 6

4. Geological processes occurring in the earth's crust 9

4.1. Exogenous processes 10

4.2. Endogenous processes 10

Conclusion 12

References 13

Introduction

All knowledge about the structure and history of the development of the earth's crust constitutes a subject called geology. The earth's crust is the upper (stone) shell of the Earth, also called the lithosphere (in Greek, "cast" - stone).

Geology as a science is subdivided into a number of independent departments that study certain questions of the structure, development, and history of the earth's crust. These include: general geology, structural geology, geological mapping, tectonics, mineralogy, crystallography, geomorphology, paleontology, petrography, lithology, and mineral geology, including oil and gas geology.

The basic provisions of general and structural geology are the foundation for understanding the issues of oil and gas geology. In turn, the main theoretical provisions on the origin of oil and gas, the migration of hydrocarbons and the formation of their accumulations underlie the search for oil and gas. In the geology of oil and gas, regularities are also considered for the distribution of various types of hydrocarbon accumulations in the earth's crust, which serve as the basis for predicting the oil and gas potential of the studied areas and regions and are used in prospecting and exploration for oil and gas.

In this paper, issues related to the earth's crust will be considered: its composition, structure, processes taking place in it.

1. General information about the structure of the Earth and the composition of the earth's crust

In general, the planet Earth has the shape of a geoid, or an ellipsoid flattened at the poles and equator, and consists of three shells.

In the center is core(radius 3400 km), around which is located mantle in the depth interval from 50 to 2900 km. The inner part of the core is assumed to be solid, iron-nickel composition. The mantle is in a molten state, in the upper part of which there are magma chambers.

At a depth of 120 - 250 km under the continents and 60 - 400 km under the oceans lies a layer of the mantle called asthenosphere. Here the substance is in a state close to melting, its viscosity is greatly reduced. All lithospheric plates seem to float in the semi-liquid asthenosphere, like ice floes in water.

Above the mantle is Earth's crust, the power of which changes dramatically on the continents and in the oceans. The sole of the crust (the surface of Mohorovichich) under the continents is located at an average depth of 40 km, and under the oceans - at a depth of 11 - 12 km. Therefore, the average thickness of the crust under the oceans (excluding the water column) is about 7 km.

The earth's crust is made up mountain porosdy, i.e., mineral communities (polymineral aggregates) that have arisen in the earth's crust as a result of geological processes. Minerals- natural chemical compounds or native elements that have certain chemical and physical properties and have arisen in the earth as a result of chemical and physical processes. Minerals are divided into several classes, each of which combines tens and hundreds of minerals. For example, sulfur compounds of metals form a class of sulfides (200 minerals), salts of sulfuric acid form 260 minerals of the sulfate class. There are classes of minerals: carbonates, phosphates, silicates, the latter of which are the most widespread in the earth's crust and form more than 800 minerals.

2. Types of rocks that make up the earth's crust

So, rocks are natural aggregates of minerals of more or less constant mineralogical and chemical composition, forming independent geological bodies that make up the earth's crust. The shape, size and relative position of mineral grains determine the structure and texture of rocks.

According to the conditions of education (genesis) distinguish: sedimentary,igneous and metamorphic rocks.

2.1. Sedimentary rocks

Genesis sedimentary rocks- either the result of the destruction and redeposition of pre-existing rocks, or precipitation from aqueous solutions (various salts), or - the result of the vital activity of organisms and plants. A characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks is their layering, which reflects the changing conditions of the deposition of geological sediments. They make up about 10% of the mass of the earth's crust and cover 75% of the earth's surface. With sedimentary rocks, St. 3/4 minerals (coal, oil, gas, salts, ores of iron, manganese, aluminum, placers of gold, platinum, diamonds, phosphorites, building materials). Depending on the source material, sedimentary rocks are divided into clastic (terrygenetic), chemogenic, organogenic (biogenic) and mixed.

clastic rocks are formed due to the accumulation of fragments of collapsed rocks, i.e. these are rocks consisting of fragments of older rocks and minerals. According to the size of the fragments, coarse clastic (blocks, crushed stones, gravel, pebbles), sandy (sandstones), silty (siltstones, siltstones) and clayey rocks are distinguished. The most widespread in the earth's crust are clastic rocks such as sands, sandstones, siltstones, and clays.

Chemogenic rocks are chemical compounds that are formed as a result of precipitation from aqueous solutions. These include: limestones, dolomites, rock salts, gypsum, anhydrite, iron and manganese ores, phosphorites, etc.

Organogenic rocks accumulate as a result of the death and burial of animals and plants, i.e. organogenic rocks (from organ and Greek genes - giving birth, born) (biogenic rocks) - sedimentary rocks consisting of the remains of animal and plant organisms or their metabolic products (shell limestone, chalk, fossil coals, oil shale, etc.) .

breeds mixed genesis, as a rule, are formed due to a different combination of all the factors considered above. Among these rocks, sandy and clayey limestones, marls (highly calcareous clays), and others stand out.

2.2. Igneous rocks

Genesis igneous rocks- the result of solidification of magma at depth or on the surface. Magma, being molten and saturated with gaseous components, pours out from the upper part of the mantle.

The composition of magma mainly includes the following elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, hydrogen. Magma contains small amounts of carbon, titanium, phosphorus, chlorine, and other elements.

Magma, penetrating into the earth's crust, can solidify at different depths or pour out onto the surface. In the first case, there are intrusive rocks, in the second - effusive. During the cooling of hot magma in the layers of the earth's crust, minerals of various structures (crystalline, amorphous, etc.) are formed. These minerals form rocks. For example, at great depths, when magma solidifies, granites are formed, at relatively shallow depths, quartz porphyries, etc.

effusive rocks Formed when magma solidifies rapidly on the Earth's surface or on the seafloor. An example is tuffs, volcanic glass.

intrusive rocks- igneous rocks formed as a result of solidification of magma in the thickness of the earth's crust.

Igneous rocks according to the content of SiO 2 (quartz and other compounds) are divided into: acidic (SiO 2 more than 65%), medium - 65-52%, basic (52-40%) and ultrabasic (less than 40% SiO 2). According to the content of quartz in the rocks, the color of the rocks changes. Acidic acids are usually light in color, basic and ultrabasic are dark to black. Acid rocks include: granites, quartz porphyries; to medium: syenites, diorites, nepheline syenites; to the main ones: gabbro, diabases, basalts; to ultramafic ones: pyroxenes, peridotites and dunites.

2.3. metamorphic rocks

metamorphic rocks formed as a result of the impact high temperatures and pressures on rocks of a different primary genesis (sedimentary or magmatic), i.e., due to chemical transformations under the influence of metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks include: gneisses, schists, marble. For example, marble is formed due to the metamorphism of the primary sedimentary rock - limestone.

3. The structure of the earth's crust

The earth's crust is conditionally divided into three layers: sedimentary, granite and basalt. The structure of the earth's crust is shown in fig. one.

1 - water, 2 - sedimentary layer, 3 - granite layer, 4 - basalt layer, 5 - deep faults, igneous rocks, 6 - mantle, M - Mohorovicic (Moho) surface, K - Konrad surface, OD - island arc, SH - mid-ocean ridge

Rice. 1. Scheme of the structure of the earth's crust (according to M.V. Muratov)

Each of the layers is heterogeneous in composition, however, the name of the layer corresponds to the predominant type of rocks, characterized by the corresponding velocities of seismic waves.

The top layer is presented sedimentary rocks, where the velocity of propagation of longitudinal seismic waves is less than 4.5 km/s. For the middle granite layer, wave velocities of the order of 5.5-6.5 km / s are characteristic, which experimentally corresponds to granites.

The sedimentary layer is thin in the oceans, but has a significant thickness on the continents (in the Caspian, for example, according to geophysical data, 20-22 km is assumed).

granite layer absent in oceans where the sediment layer directly overlies basaltic. The basaltic layer is the lower layer of the earth's crust, located between the Konrad surface and the Mohorovichic surface. It is characterized by the propagation velocity of longitudinal waves from 6.5 to 7.0 km/s.

On the continents and oceans, the earth's crust differs in composition and thickness. The continental crust under mountain structures reaches 70 km, on the plains - 25-35 km. In this case, the upper layer (sedimentary) is usually 10-15 km, with the exception of the Caspian Sea and others. Below is a granite layer up to 40 km thick, and at the base of the crust there is a basalt layer also up to 40 km.

The boundary between the crust and mantle is called Mohorovicic surface. In it, the speed of propagation of seismic waves increases abruptly. IN in general terms the shape of the surface of Mohorovichich is a mirror reflection of the topography of the outer surface of the lithosphere: it is higher under the oceans, lower under the continental plains.

Konrad surface(after the Austrian geophysicist W. Konrad, 1876-1962) - the interface between the "granite" and "basalt" layers of the continental crust. The velocity of longitudinal seismic waves when passing through the Konrad surface increases abruptly from about 6 to 6.5 km/sec. In a number of places, the Konrad surface is absent and the seismic wave velocities increase gradually with depth. Sometimes, on the contrary, there are several surfaces of an abrupt increase in velocities.

The oceanic crust is thinner than the continental crust and has a two-layer structure (sedimentary and basalt layers). The sedimentary layer is usually loose, several hundred meters thick, basalt - from 4 to 10 km.

In the transitional regions, where there are marginal seas and island arcs, the so-called transitionbark type. In such areas, the continental crust passes into the oceanic one and is characterized by average layer thicknesses. At the same time, under the marginal sea, as a rule, there is no granite layer, and it can be traced under the island arc.

island arc- underwater mountain range, whose peaks rise above the water in the form of an arched archipelago. Island arcs are part of the transition zone from the mainland to the ocean; characterized by seismic activity and vertical movements of the earth's crust.

mid-ocean ridges- the largest landforms of the bottom of the world's oceans, forming single system mountain structures with a length of over 60 thousand km, with a relative height of 2-3 thousand m and a width of 250-450 km (in some areas up to 1000 km). They are uplifts of the earth's crust, with strongly dissected ridges and slopes; in the Pacific and Arctic oceans, mid-ocean ridges are located in the marginal parts of the oceans, in the Atlantic - in the middle.

4. Geological processes occurring in the earth's crust

Various geological processes have taken place and are taking place on the earth's surface and inside the earth's crust throughout the entire geological history, which affect the formation of mineral deposits.

Sedimentary strata and minerals such as coal, oil, gas, oil shale, phosphorites and others are the result of the activity of living organisms, water, wind, sunlight and everything else associated with them.

In order to form oil, for example, it is first of all necessary to accumulate a huge amount of fossil remains in sedimentary strata, sinking to a considerable depth, where, under the influence of high temperatures and pressures, this biomass is converted into oil or natural gas.

All geological processes are divided into exogenous (surface) and endogenous (internal).

4.1. Exogenous processes

Exogenous processes- this is the destruction of rocks on the surface of the Earth, the transfer of their fragments and the accumulation in the seas, lakes, rivers. Elevated areas of the terrain (mountains, hills) are subjected to destruction to a greater extent, and the accumulation of fragments of destroyed rocks, on the contrary, occurs in low areas (depressions, reservoirs).

Exogenous processes occur under the influence of atmospheric phenomena (the effect of precipitation, wind, melting glaciers, the vital activity of animals and plants, the movement of rivers and other water flows, etc.).

Surface processes associated with the destruction of rocks are also called weathering or denudation. Under the action of weathering, a kind of leveling of the relief occurs, as a result of which exogenous processes are weakened, and in a number of places (on the plains) they practically die out.

4.2. Endogenous processes

Also important in oil formation are endogenous processes, which include various movements of sections of the earth's crust (horizontal and vertical tectonic movements), earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and outpourings of magma (liquid fiery lava) on the surface of the Earth, on the bottom of the seas and oceans, as well as deep faults in the earth's crust, tectonic disturbances, folding and etc. i.e. endogenous processes include processes occurring inside the Earth.

The earth's crust during the course of geological history has been subjected to both vertical oscillatory movements and horizontal movements of lithospheric plates. These global changes in the Earth's stony shell undoubtedly influenced the formation of oil and gas deposits.

Due to vertical movements, large depressions and troughs were formed, where thick layers of sediments accumulated.

The latter, in turn, could produce hydrocarbons (oil and gas). In other areas, on the contrary, large uplifts arose, which are also of interest in terms of oil and gas, since they could accumulate hydrocarbons.

With horizontal displacements of lithospheric plates, some continents merged and others split, which also affected the processes of formation and accumulation of oil and gas. At the same time, in some parts of the earth's crust, favorable conditions arose for the accumulation of significant concentrations of hydrocarbons.

Endogenous processes also include metamorphism, i.e., recrystallization of rocks under the influence of high temperatures and pressures. Metamorphism is divided into three types.

Regional metamorphism- this is a change in the composition of rocks that sink to great depths and are exposed to high temperature and pressure.

Another kind - dynamometamorphism occurs when tectonic lateral pressure acts on rocks, which are crushed, split into tiles and acquire a slate appearance.

In the process of magma intrusion into rocks, there is also contact metamorphism, resulting in partial remelting and recrystallization of the latter near the zone of contact between magmatic melts and host rocks.

Conclusion

Oil and gas forecasting, prospecting and exploration of oil and gas are based on knowledge of the geology of oil and gas, which, in turn, relies on a solid foundation - general and structural geology.

The questions of general geology include the study of the geological age of the layers of the earth's crust, the composition of the rocks that make up the crust, the geological history of the earth, and the geological processes occurring in the depths and on the surface of the planet.

Structural geology studies the structure, movement and development of the earth's crust, the forms of occurrence of rocks, the causes of their occurrence and development.

The conditions of occurrence of rocks must be known in order to correctly approach the identification of mineral deposits, including the discovery of deposits and deposits of oil and gas. It is known that most accumulations of oil and gas are located in anticlines, which are hydrocarbon traps. Therefore, the search for structural oil and gas traps is carried out on the basis of studying the structural features of the earth's crust in the study areas.

List of used literature:
1. internal structure Lands (4)
  Abstract >> Geology
  Mantle. She, like earthly bark, has a complex structure.Even in the 19th century, it became ... external and internal forces of the Earth. Structure terrestrial bark heterogeneous (Fig. 19). Upper... the waves are small. Rice. 19. Structure terrestrial bark Below, under the continents, there is a granite...