Structural organization of the human body. Basic systems of the human body Sections of human morphology
Regarding their organs.
Planes and axes passing through the human body, location
The concept of organs, systems, apparatuses, soma and viscera.
The place of anatomy in biology, definition, subject and object of study.
2. The connection of anatomy with other sciences and its basic methods.
Anatomy is one of the biological disciplines.
Biology is a set of sciences about living nature, about the structure, development and diversity of living beings, their relationships and connections with the external environment.
Biology includes two main sections: morphology and physiology.
Morphology-studies the form and structure of living beings.
Physiology– the science of the vital activity of organisms, the processes occurring in their structures, and the regulation of functions.
Among the morphological disciplines is human anatomy – the science of the form and structure, origin and development of the human body, its systems and organs.
Man belongs to the animal world, therefore anatomy studies the structure of man, taking into account the biological laws inherent in all vertebrates, as well as taking into account age, gender and individual characteristics.
Anatomy serves as the foundation a number of biological disciplines: anthropology, histology, cytology, embryology, physiology, evolutionary studies, genetics and is closely related to them. All these disciplines arose in the depths of anatomy at different times, and then separated due to the emergence of new and improved research methods.
Basic anatomy methods:
1. Dissection (from the Greek anatome - I cut).
2. Filling hollow organs with hardening masses and obtaining casts (injection method).
3. Plastic anatomy(studies the shapes and proportions of the body, important for sculptors and artists).
4. X-ray anatomy ( studies the internal structure using x-rays).
5. Endoscopy(examination of internal hollow organs using special instruments through natural holes).
Organ (from Greek organon- tool, instrument) is distinguished by its unique location, shape and structure, adapted to perform a specific function.
Organs are built from tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous). Each organ has all types of tissues, but one of them is the working one, performing the main function of the organ.
Organs can be anatomically and functionally combined into systems and devices.
System - a number of organs that have a common structural plan, unity of origin and perform one major function.
According to different principles organs are combined into devices:
a) organs in the apparatus often have different structures and origins, may not be anatomically connected, but they are united by their participation in the execution general function(for example, ODA - musculoskeletal system);
b) in the apparatus, organs can be related by origin, but at the same time perform different functions(for example, the genitourinary apparatus).
In the human body there are:
1. Somu(from Greek soma- body): includes bones, joints of bones, skin and skeletal muscles that form cavities.
2. Entrails(from Greek splanchna or from lat. viscera) - organs located inside cavities.
Vessels and nerves approach the soma and viscera and branch into them. They are neither one nor the other.
Basic principles of the structure of the human body:
1. Polarity (different structure and functions of poles).
2. Segmentation or metamerism (repetition, more clearly preserved in the body).
3. Bilateral symmetry.
4. Correlation (relationship between individual parts).
Human anatomy is called normal anatomy. Each person is unique, at the same time, all people belong to the same species and have the same structure plan. Normal It is considered a state (structure) of an organ and organism in which their functions are not impaired.
The most important of them:
1) The law of historical development is that all living organisms, regardless of their level of organization and habitat, have gone through a long path of historical development ( phylogenesis);
2) The law of unity of both the organism and the environment. Sechenov. It says that an organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible.
3) The law of integrity and indivisibility states that each organism is a single whole and indivisible, in which all its parts are in close genetic, morphological, functional relationship and interdependence;
4) The law of unity of form and function. Each organ in the body has several functions, of which, in the course of historical transformations, only one acquires predominant importance, while others disappear. With all these transformations, the structure of the organ and its functional functions are equally involved, i.e. form and function form an inextricable whole.
5) The law of homologous series concludes that the closer the genetic species are, the more accurately and sharply the similarity of the series of morphological and physiological characteristics is manifested. It is the basis of comparative anatomy.
6) The law of saving space and material. All organs and systems in the body are built in such a way that with minimal expenditure of “building material” they are able to perform maximum work.
7) The law of heredity and variability.
8) Basic biogenetic law. Anatomy studies the body throughout life, i.e. from fertilization to death (ontogenesis). Ontogenesis– individual development of the body. 2 stages: 1) prenatal (from the moment of fertilization to birth); 2) postnatal (after birth until death). The prenatal period has 3 periods: embryonic, prefetal and fetal. Postnatal includes 6 periods: neonatal, milk, juvenile (age), period of puberty, period of morphofunctional maturity and gerantological period.
Basic laws (principles) of the structure of the body:
1) Bipolarity(uniaxiality) - the presence of two opposite poles of the body (head - cranial direction; tail - caudal direction);
2) Segmentation(metamerism) - the body is divided into separate metameres (sections = segments), which are repeated one after another along the longitudinal axis. This makes it easier to study the skeleton or any system.
3) Antimeria(bilateral symmetry = bilateral) – mirror similarity of the right and left halves of the body, i.e. The animal's body is divided along the longitudinal axis by the median plane (planum medianum). The organs located on either side of this plane are called antimers(kidneys, lungs). Not only organs, also limbs, temporal bones, maxillary bones, etc. Unpaired organs and bones usually lie in the median plane and are divided into 2 identical halves. Example: occipital bone, tongue, spinal cord, brain, all vertebrae.
4) Law of tube-shaped construction. All systems and apparatuses of animals develop in the form of a tube (nervous, digestive, excretory). The result of reflecting the law of saving space and material.
Osteology- science of bones. General characteristics of the movement apparatus. Skeletal system. The structure of bones and their classification.
Movement apparatus includes a skeletal (passive) part and a muscular (active) part. Both parts of the movement apparatus have a common origin from the middle germ layer (mesoderm) and are closely interconnected and interdependent.
Skeletal system(animal skeleton), the functions of which are as follows:
1) Mechanical function:
a. They are a strong skeleton of the body, providing reliable protection and normal functioning of all organs (spinal cord, brain, lungs, heart);
b. The skeleton is a system of levers that provides dynamics and statics;
2) Biological function.
a. In the bones there is a depot of mineralization (calcium, phosphorus).
b. Serves as a receptacle for bone marrow (hematopoietic function)
Each skeleton has its own distinctive features. From individual bones we can tell about age, mineralization, etc.
The number of bones varies from 200 to 280.
Bone mass in relation to body mass 7-15%. On the skeleton of the limbs - 50%, torso – 30% , head - 20%. 1/3 – skeleton of the thoracic limb, 2/3 – thoracic limb.
Chemical composition and physical properties of bones. Fresh bones contain 50% water, 15% fat, 12% organic matter, 23% inorganic matter. sternum – 30% fat. Young bones are soft and elastic, because contain more organic substances (ossein, which provides bones with flexibility and elasticity). In old age, there are more minerals, bones become less elastic and more fragile.
The structure of bone as an organ. Vascularization (blood supply). The outside of the bone is covered with periosteum ( periosteum), has 2 layers: 1) surface(fibrous layer), consists of dense connective tissue and is rich in blood vessels and nerves, so the bone in the body has a faint pink color and is very sensitive. This layer is especially developed where ligaments and tendons are attached. 2) interior(cambial) layer. It has a more delicate structure, is poor in blood vessels, but has many osteoblasts, due to which young bones grow in width, and in an adult body, restoration of defects and fusion after fractures occurs.
Under the periosteum there is a compact substance.
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The compact substance that covers the bone, a unit - osteon - is a system of light tubes inserted into each other and fastened together, located along the compressive force experienced under loads. This layer is most pronounced in diaphases and becomes thinner towards epiphases.
Spongy substance(substantia spongiosa) from membranous bone plates? Containing small cells and filled with bone marrow.
Bone marrow(medulla osteon) – red and yellow. Red bone marrow in the spongy substance of the vertebral bodies, ribs, sternum and epiphyses of long tubular bones, in the bones of the base of the skull. Yellow bone marrow in the diaphysis of long tubular bones consists of adipose tissue with hematopoietic particles.
Each bone is equipped with blood vessels that enter from the periosteum through the nutrient openings (foramen nitricum).
Classification of bones:
1) By origin:
a. Primary (2 stages of development: connective tissue, bone) (covering bones of the skull - incisive, maxillary, nasal, frontal, parietal, interparietal). Clavicle, lower jaw.
b. Secondary (3 stages: connective tissue, cartilage, bone). Most of the bones.
2) In form:
a. Long (os longum)
i. Arc-shaped (rib);
ii. Tubular (length > width and thickness). They are called so because a cavity for the bone marrow is formed in the middle part of the diaphysis; performs the function of leverage and protection.
b. Short (os breve) length = width. The bones of the wrist and tarsus (so, where great mobility is combined with a large load, perform depreciation). Sisamoid bones (patella)
c. Flat (os planum) form the walls of the cavities and girdles of the limbs. Protective function. They have spacious surfaces for muscle attachment (pelvis, scapula, skull cap);
d. Mixed (os irregulare). Vertebrae, sphenoid bone.
e. Air bones (os pneumaticum). They have a sinus in the body filled with air (maxillary, frontal and sphenoid sinuses). May communicate with the nasal cavity.
3) According to topography. The bones of the neck, head, torso, and tail are united into the axial skeleton. The bones of the limbs are the peripheral skeleton.
Phylo- and ontogeny of the skeleton. The internal skeleton has the most primitive structure in coelenterates, in which it is represented by acellular connective tissue membranes. In arthropods, the chitinous skeleton, which performs a protective function and serves for muscle attachment, is of particular importance. In roundworms the skeleton is represented by a system of plates, cords or membranes. In cephalopods In molluscs, the connective tissue skeleton in the area of the head, back, and base of the fins is replaced by denser structures resembling cartilage. At the lancelet only the notochord has a more elastic structure, and the rest of the skeleton is represented by fibrous connective tissue, which is the predecessor to all other tissues involved in the formation of the internal skeleton of vertebrates.
Conversion of a membranous skeleton to a cartilaginous one (cartilaginous fish), then into inert (bony fish, amphibians, birds and mammals) is due to the fact that animals adapt to more complex living conditions.
During ontogenesis bones go through 3 stages of their development and formation. In the early stages of embryonic development, a connective tissue or membranous framework, represented by membranous bones, is formed from the mesoderm. Subsequent changes are characterized by the gradual replacement of the connective tissue base with cartilaginous tissue with the formation of cartilaginous bone. At the third stage, cartilage tissue is replaced by bone tissue, which can occur in two ways: either from the inside of the cartilaginous bone (endochondral type of ossification) or from its surface (perichondral ossification).
Limb skeleton represented by two pairs of limbs (ossa membri thoracia et pelvini). They include the girdle of the thoracic limb and the girdle of the pelvic limb (cingulum...) and the skeleton of the free section.
Shoulder girdle represented by the scapula (os scapula) and weakly defined coracoid and clavicle. The shoulder blade is flat, almost triangular in shape. Lies obliquely on the side of the chest. It connects ventrally with the shoulder, forming the shoulder joint. This is its narrowest part. This is approximately 1-2 ribs. Dorsal to the withers, the scapula widens. All this and its oblique position allows it to perceive strong shocks from the pelvic limbs during rapid movements. The body rests on the scapula mainly in the area of attachment of the ventral serratus muscle (serratus). The spine of the scapula ends with the acromion (dog and cattle) and does not have it in the horse and pig. The degree of its development depends on the need for greater or lesser abduction of the limbs to the side (abduction). The freer it is, the more strongly the acromion is expressed by the corresponding muscles. On the dorsal edge there is cartilage, which is most pronounced in ungulates, and in pigs and dogs in the form of a strip.
Clavicle (clavicula) sometimes preserved in the form of a plate in the distal third of the neck.
Coracoid in the form of a small process is located on the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula on the medial side. Most pronounced in horses.
The free section is represented by the humerus and is called this section (stylopodium - one ray).
Bones of the forearm (ulna and radius). The department is called zeygopodium - two rays.
Brush– autopodium.
On the pelvic limb, the pelvic girdle is represented by the paired pelvic bone (2 os coxae = os pelvis). Ventrally, both innominate (pelvic) bones are connected by a symphysis, which at a young age is represented by cartilaginous tissue and then ossifies. The pelvis is formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium and pubic bones. At the site of fusion, the acetabulum is visible, which with the head of the femur forms the hip joint and a locked opening for blood vessels, nerves and muscles. The pelvic bones, connecting ventrally with each other, and dorsally with the sacrum, form the pelvic cavity (cavum pelvis). It has a cone-shaped cavity with the apex directed caudally, except in dogs (in them it expands caudally). The lateral walls of the pelvis are formed by the ilium and ischium. The roof (arch) of the pelvis is represented by the sacrum and the first caudal vertebrae. The bottom (base of the pelvis) is represented by the pubic and ischial bones.
Free section of the pelvic limb. Zeigopodium – tibia (fibula and tibia), stylopodium – thigh. Autopodium – foot.
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Phylogeny of limbs
In chordates, the initial form is a muscular lateral fold in the aquatic environment, which is subsequently reduced into paired pectoral and ventral fins.
In cartilaginous fish, the fins are located in a horizontal plane, their size increases, the cartilaginous base is strengthened, which are then transformed into the skeleton of the limb girdles. Gradually, the fins are directed at an angle, and the cartilage is replaced with inert tissue.
In amphibians, due to adaptation to a terrestrial lifestyle, the fins turn into legs and are divided into belts and free limbs. The main movements are lateral bends of the body and tail. The shoulder girdle is further divided into a dorsal section (scapula) and a ventral section (coracoid and clavicle), with the coracoid being more developed. The pelvic girdle has the most developed ventral section (ischium and lunar bone), while the dorsal section is poorly developed.
Subsequently, differentiation of the limbs became possible due to the rotation of the limbs from the transverse plane to the lateral plane, lifting the body from the ground and bringing them under the body. These transformations lead to greater development of the dorsal parts of the girdles and the transformation of the limbs into active organs of movement. In the pectoral limbs, due to the development of the scapula, the coracoid and clavicle are reduced.
Skull (cranium)
2 sections: head (carebrale) and facial (viscerale)
The border between the facial and brain regions is a transverse plane drawn through the orbit. It is formed by 6 unpaired and 13 paired bones. At a young age, the bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue in the form of sutures, which gradually ossify. The ratio of the departments depends on the development of the teeth and the development of the brain.
Functions of the skull:
1) The skull contains the brain and protects it, forming the cranium with the cranial cavity. The head contains sensory organs that are protected by a bone base:
a. Bone orbit (for the eyes). In large ones, the orbit is closed (lacrimal, zygomatic, frontal, temporal). In small animals the orbit is not closed;
b. Labyrinth of the ethmoid bone. Contains an olfactory analyzer;
c. Petrous bone. The auricle is attached. The skeleton of the equilibrium-auditory analyzer;
2) The respiratory tube and the digestive tube begin on the head. The spinal cord enters the brain through the foramen magnum.
General characteristics of the facial part of the skull. It includes bones that serve as the skeleton of the nasal and oropharyngeal cavities. From the surface of the facial skull, the bone bases of various areas are distinguished:
1) The bone base of the nasal region (region nasalis), is located dorsally and is a continuation of the bone base forward of the frontal region;
2) Bone base of the incisive region (incisive bone);
3) Bone base of the buccal region (main maxillary bone);
4) Bone base of the masticatory muscle (mandibular bone);
5) Bone base of the palatal region (incisive bone, maxillary and palatine). Behind it opens the entrance to the pharynx and bone base of the joanal region.
The facial section is located in front from below in relation to the brain section and there are 2 sections distinguished in it: the lower, longer one is the skeleton of the oropharyngeal cavity and the upper, shorter one is the skeleton of the nasal cavity. The border between them is the bony, hard palate, which is the bottom for the nasal cavity, and the roof for the oral cavity. Both sections converge towards the incisal region into a blunt apex. This is especially clearly visible in pigs, which is supplemented by a proboscis bone (piglet).
General characteristics of the cranial cavity (cavum cranium). It is divided into 2 unevenly developed sections: the rhombencephalon (small brain), smaller in volume, contains the medulla oblongata and hindbrain; the cerebrum serves as a container for the midbrain, diencephalon and telencephalon. The boundary of the departments is the hanging tentorium (tentorium osseum) of the interparietal bone. At the bottom of the cranial cavity, the boundary is the muscular tubercle, between the bodies of the occipital and sphenoid bones. In both of these departments there are 2 departments:
1) The upper wall (= fornix = roof = cranial cover = calvaria), which is formed from back to front by the squama of the occipital bone, parietal, interparietal bones, frontal and part of the squama of the temporal bone; The lacrimal and zygomatic lie on the border of the brain and facial sections. A characteristic feature of the roof of the skull is that on the entire surface on the side of the brain there are digital impressions (impressionis digitalis) - they are imprints of the convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum.
2) The bottom of the brain, which includes the body of the occipital and sphenoid bones. What is characteristic of these bones is that they can be classified as mixed unpaired bones.
Species features of the skull as a whole:
Horse. The skull is relatively more or less light with a very developed facial part and a heavy lower jaw, which is associated with the nutrition of the animal. The nasal bone and nasal cavity are well developed, the maxillary sinuses (maxillary sinuses), the zygomatic ridge, the brain region is small, streamlined in shape, the temporal fossa is well developed, the orbit is closed, large ragged foramina, because the tympanic bladder is poorly developed. The petrous bone is independent.
Cattle. The skull is heavy, massive, angular. The cranial cover is extensive and smooth, with powerful horny processes on the sides. The interparietal bone is displaced back to the occipital region. The torn holes are slit-like. The upper jaw does not bear incisor teeth. The lower jaw is poorly developed.
Pig. The skull is massive, wedge-shaped and, as it were, “attached” for digging with the snout (snub). It has a strongly expanded and concave posterior occipital region. The cranial cover and the facial part are concave on top. The brain region is small, the orbit is not closed.
Dog. The skull is light, with a developed brain part, the orbit is not closed and the lacrimal bone is small. Round head, short and wide - brachycephalic; oblong head, long and narrow - dolichocephals; intermediate form - mesatocephals.
Arthrology (syndesmology) – the doctrine of the connection of bones.
Types of bone connections
Continuous and discontinuous connections.
Continuous connections (fusions) are the most ancient in origin, and are mainly found where significant strength and limited mobility are required to ensure organ protection, joint elasticity, elasticity and flexibility.
Types of continuous connections:
Fibrous connections. The presence of dense connective tissue between connecting bones:
1) Syndesmosis - connection of bones through dense connective tissue ( simple syndesmosis, when the connection of bones due to collagen connective tissue: interosseous ligaments and membranes; elastic, using elastic connective tissue: yellow ligaments);
2) Through sutures (sutura). Characterized by one or another shape of the edges of the bones in contact: flat (smooth = sutura plana: nasal bone); scaly (sutura squamosa: parietal from the temporal bone); serrated (sutura serrata: nasal bones with frontal bones); leaflet (sutura foliata, a type of dentate, but individual teeth are more deeply embedded: the wings of the sphenoid bone with the frontal and parietal bones); split suture (sutura schindylesis, the sharp edge of one bone is wedged into the split edge of another: the nasal process of the incisive bone with the maxillary bone).
3) Gomphosis – teeth in the sockets on the maxillary, mandibular and incisive bones.
Cartilaginous connections characterized by the presence of cartilaginous layers between the bones:
1) Synchrondrosis - hyaline cartilage between the bones (rib cartilages, articular surfaces of the entire bones), with age it is replaced by bone tissue;
2) Symphysis - fibrous cartilage between the bones (pelvic bones, intervertebral discs).
Muscle junctions (synsarcosis) between the bones there is muscle tissue (scapula with torso).
Bone connection (synostosis) replacement of cartilage or dense connective tissue with bone.
Discontinuous connections (joint) through the joints. Occurs where significant mobility is needed. Each joint must contain: articular surfaces, articular capsule, articular cavity, articular (synovial) fluid filling the joint cavity.
The joint may include various inclusions: discs, menisci, which strengthen the joint and provide congruence (alignment) and provide strictly defined functions.
Articular surfaces (facies articularis) covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage, thickness from 0.2 to 0.5 cm, which ensures alignment. Mostly hyaline cartilage is found, sometimes it can be fibrous. It also provides sliding and reduced friction (very elastic).
Articular capsule (capsula articularis) being fixed along the edges of the articular cartilages, it forms a hermetically sealed cavity. It consists of 2 layers: the outer layer (fibrous), which performs a protective function, and the synovial layer, which produces a viscous fluid (synovium), which facilitates the sliding of articular surfaces, serves as a nutrient medium for articular cartilage, and metabolic products of cartilage tissue are released into it.
Description of presentation Lecture General principles of the structure of the human body. Cells and slides
Lecture General principles of the structure of the human body. Cells and tissues Plan: 1. Principles of the structure of the human body. 2. Cells. 3. Fabrics.
Anatomy from Greek. "anatome" - dissection, dismemberment. Anatomy is the science of the forms, structure, origin and development of the human body, its systems and organs. Anatomy examines the structure of the human body and its organs at different periods of life, from the intrauterine period of life to old age, and examines the characteristics of the body under the influence of the external environment. Anatomy includes sections: 1. topographic anatomy; 2. systematic anatomy; 3. Functional anatomy
Anatomy terms Symmetrical organs are a mirror image of each other. For example: right and left hand, etc. Asymmetrical organs - spleen on the left, liver on the right of the midline. Anatomical position: Vertical body position, upper limbs brought to the body, palms facing forward, neck straight, gaze directed into the distance.
The location of body parts and their constituent organs is described using imaginary lines or planes.
To indicate the location of organs in relation to: - The terms are used to the horizontal plane: Cranial (from Lat. Cranium - skull) (upper) Caudal (from Lat. - tail) (lower). — Frontal plane: — Ventral (lat. Ventral-stomach) (anterior) — Dorsal (lat. Dorsal-back) (posterior) — Lateral-lateral (farther from the middle) — Middle-medial (closer to the middle). — To designate parts of the limbs, the terms are: proximal (closer to the body), distal (farther from the body).
Levels of organization of a person as a living being: Molecular Cellular Tissue Organ Systemic Organism Organ - a part of the body that has its own unique shape, structure and occupies a certain place in the body and performs characteristic functions (muscle, liver, eye, etc.). An organ system is organs that have a common structural plan, a common origin and perform a single function. Organ apparatuses are organs that have different structures and origins, but are connected by performing a single function. The body is the systems and apparatus of organs that work as a single whole.
Organ systems: Bone Muscular Nervous Digestive Respiratory Cardiovascular Urinary Immune Genital Skin Apparatuses: Musculoskeletal Genitourinary Endocrine
A cell is the elementary unit of living things. Properties of living things: -metabolism; -heredity; -variability; -reproduction; -development and growth; -movement; -irritability; -adaptation. A CELL consists of cytoplasm and nucleus. Cytoplasm consists of hyaloplasm (cytosol) and organelles (organelles). Cells are divided into somatic and reproductive cells. The sizes and shapes of cells are varied.
The nucleus consists of chromatin, nucleolus, karyoplasm, nuclear membrane. Core functions: storage and transmission of genetic information; implementation of genetic information (protein synthesis, regulation of cell activity) Chromatin - a complex of DNA and proteins (histones and non-histones) Chromatin Euchromatin (weakly condensed, active) Heterochromatin (strongly condensed, inactive) Facultative (contains genes that are not active in a given cell at a given time ) Constitutive (structural) does not contain a gene nucleus nucleolus euchromatin heterochromatin
Cytoplasmic membrane The membrane is a mobile fluid structure consisting of a bilipid layer (phospholipids) and protein molecules immersed in it. On the outer surface there is a glycocalyx (glycolipids, glycoproteins) Functions: Barrier protective Transport Receptor Secretory Formation of intercellular contacts Participates in cell movement
The endoplasmic reticulum is a system of channels and cavities. Two types: 1. rough (granular) contains ribosomes 2. Smooth (agranular) no ribosomes. Functions: Protein synthesis Synthesis and accumulation of carbohydrates and fats Spatial separation of cell enzyme systems
Golgi apparatus. A network of membrane cavities (5-8), from which tubes and vesicles extend. Functions: 1. Accumulation and chemical modification of substances that are synthesized in the ER 2. Transport of substances from the cell 3. Formation of lysosomes
Mitochondria This is a double-membrane organelle: the outer membrane is smooth, the inner one forms folds. Inside is a matrix containing liquid, circular DNA, RNA, ribosomes Function: ATP synthesis
Ribosomes consist of two subunits: small and large. Chemical composition: RNA and proteins. Ribosomes are located freely in the cytoplasm and on the ER membrane, the nuclear envelope. Function: protein synthesis.
The cell center consists of two centrioles (mother and daughter) and a centrosphere. Consist of microtubules. Formula: (9 x3)+0 Functions: formation of the spindle, lie at the base of cilia and flagella.
Cilia, flagellum Cell outgrowths surrounded by a membrane are capable of movement. They consist of a protein called tubulin. Intra-axoneme (9 x2)+2 Function: provide movement.
Tissues are a group of cells and extracellular substances that have a common origin, structure and function. Types of tissues: Epithelial Connective Muscular Nervous
Epithelial tissues cover the surfaces of the body, line the mucous membranes of internal organs, and form most glands. Functions: barrier, protective, excretory, absorption. They are divided into integumentary and glandular. General structural features: 1. Epithelia consist of epithelial cells that form layers lying on the basement membrane 2. There is no intercellular substance between the cells; they are connected using special contacts. 3. There are no blood or lymphatic vessels, nutrition is carried out through the basement membrane by diffusion from the connective tissue. 4. They have the ability to quickly recover through mitosis. Covering epithelium is divided into single-layer and multilayer. Single-layer: cubic, prismatic, flat, etc. Multilayer: squamous keratinizing epithelium, squamous non-keratinizing epithelium, transitional epithelium.
Connective tissues are divided into: 1. Connective tissues proper: - Loose connective tissue; — Dense connective tissue 2. Connective tissues with special properties: fatty, pigmented, reticular, mucous. 3. Blood and lymph 3. Skeletal tissues - cartilage and bone
Blood and lymph Blood is red tissue, consisting of plasma (55%) and formed elements (45%). Formed elements: Red blood cells Leukocytes (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, monocytes) Platelets Blood functions: Respiratory Nutritional Protective Regulatory Homeostatic Immune. Lymph is a clear yellowish liquid. Consists of lymphoplasm and lymphocytes. Function: trophic, immune.
Loose connective tissue. This tissue forms membranes around organs, accompanies blood vessels, and fills the space between organ cells. The main function is to create conditions for the life of organ cells (trophic, respiratory, immune, regulatory and other functions). Loose connective tissue consists of cells and intercellular substance. PCT cells: fibroblasts, fibrocytes, macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, fat cells, adventitial cells. The intercellular substance consists of a ground (amorphous) substance and fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular). Fibers form three-dimensional networks and create a tissue frame; cells and substances move through them.
Dense connective tissue consists of cells (fibrocytes) and intercellular substance (many fibers, little amorphous substance). There are 2 types: formed (tendons, ligaments, capsules, etc.) and unformed (dermis of the skin).
Bone tissue: reticulofibrous, lamellar. Bone tissue consists of cells (osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts) and intercellular substance (ossein and minerals (calcium phosphates)
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Introductory lecture.
The subject and tasks of anatomy, its place among biological disciplines, its significance for theoretical and practical medicine.
Modern methods of anatomical research
Anatomical principles of the structural organization of the human body.
The main stages of human ontogenesis.
Anatomy is one of the most important biomedical disciplines, since the subject of study of anatomy is man, the most highly organized living organism. At the same time, it is a morphological discipline, as it studies the external forms and internal structure of the entire body and each organ separately. Modern anatomy attempts to explain the reason for the structure of the human body in relation to its function. Together with physiology, anatomy forms the basis or foundation of theoretical and practical medicine.
The name anatomy comes from the word “antemno” (Greek) – dissection, dismemberment. This term is due to the fact that the original and main method of obtaining facts was the method of dissecting a human corpse.
The study of human anatomy provides the necessary conditions for mastering other disciplines necessary for the practical work of a doctor.
The importance of anatomy for medicine was pointed out by many prominent scientists and medical figures.
“Study the basics of science before trying to climb to its heights, never take on the next without mastering the previous one” - I.P. Pavlov.
“The study of the structure of the human body is the fundamental basis of medicine” Hippocrates
“Anatomy is the first science, without it there can be no healing” ancient Russian manuscript.
“I would consider the highest reward for me to be the conviction that I managed to prove to our doctors that anatomy does not, as many people think, constitute only the alphabet of medicine” - Pirogov N.I.
“without anatomy there is no surgery or therapy, but only signs and prejudices» - Gubarev A.P.
Currently, other methods are used to understand the structure of not only a dead person, but also a living person:
1) Anthropometry, which allows you to measure the length and weight of the body, identify their relationships, determine the proportions of the body, the type of constitution;
2) Injection method - filling body cavities, lumens of the bronchial tree, blood and lymphatic vessels, and hollow organs with a colored mass. It has been used since the 16th century. The injection method is complemented by subsequent corrosion and enlightenment of organs and tissues;
3) The microscopic method appeared with the invention of magnifying objects using a magnifying glass and a microscope. Thanks to this method, it was possible to identify networks of blood and lymphatic capillaries, intraorgan plexuses of vessels and nerves. The structures of lobules and acini have been clarified;
4) Fluoroscopic radiographic methods, which make it possible to study the intravital form and functional characteristics of a living person. Currently, computed tomography, NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance radiography), and spiral computed tomography are used. Radiography is often supplemented by the use of x-ray contrast agents;
5) Endoscopic research method (gastroscopy, bronchoscopy, colonoscopy, laparoscopy, cystoscopy, hysteroscopy, etc.). It allows you to see, with the help of optical instruments introduced through natural and artificial openings, the color, relief of organs and mucous membranes;
Ultrasound examination (echography), based on the reflection of ultrasound by tissues, allows one to determine the external shapes, sizes, thickness of the walls of the organs being studied, and their internal structure.
Structural organization of the human body.
The structural and functional unit of all living things, including the human body, is the cell. There are a huge number of cells in the human body. Each type of cell differs in shape, size and internal structure, but each has a nucleus and cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane. The cytoplasm of cells contains organelles: mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and others, as well as inclusions of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and pigment granules. Cells can be mononucleated or multinucleated. Cells form tissues.
Textile- a historically established system consisting of cells of a common structure, origin and function. In addition to cells, tissue contains a living intermediate intercellular substance.
There are 4 main tissues in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous. Each of them has a number of varieties.
Epithelial tissue performs integumentary (border) and excretory (secretory) functions.
Epithelium covers the entire body from the outside (skin) and lines the internal organs and various cavities of our body from the inside (the mucous membrane of the digestive tube, respiratory tract and genitourinary system). The epithelium forms the excretory organs (sweat, sebaceous, mammary, digestive, mucous, reproductive and endocrine glands).
This tissue is characterized by the fact that it consists of closely packed epithelial cells of various shapes located on the basement membrane.
Between the cells there are only thin layers of adhesive intercellular substance. There are single-layer and multilayer epithelium, single-row and multi-row epithelium.
Connective tissue has a mechanical significance, forming solid supporting tissues, due to which the hard and soft skeleton of the human body is built. This includes bone, cartilage and fibrous (fibrous) connective tissue. Blood and lymph also belong to connective tissue and perform a trophic function. The main difference between connective tissue is the presence of a larger amount of intermediate substance, consisting of collagen and elastic fibers and the main amorphous substance. Collagen fibers have high mechanical strength. Elastic fibers have the ability to stretch and return to their original thickness and length after the force ceases.
Muscle carries out the movement of the body in space, the movement of blood in the vessels and the contraction of the walls of internal organs. There are smooth and striated muscle tissue.
Nervous tissue They connect the body with the external environment and ensure the integral function of the whole organism. It consists of nerve cells (neurons) and neuroglia. The brain and spinal cord, nerves and nerve ganglia are built from nervous tissue.
Tissues do not exist in isolation, but together participate in the construction of certain organs.
An organ is a part of the body that occupies a certain position in the body, is distinguished by a unique shape, has a special structure and performs a special function inherent in it.
Organs of the body are usually combined into systems and apparatuses.
An organ system is a number of organs that are anatomically and topographically connected to each other, have a common structural plan, a common origin in phylo- and ontogenesis and perform the same function.
This threatens her destruction or the destruction of the world. Therefore, any form of existence, including humans, is built on a natural basis.
The initial form of the child is created on the basis of its own material, laid down as the basis by the parental cells. After the fusion of the masculine and feminine principles, the mechanism for building the baby’s body is activated, observing the order of the development process. When two different genetic foundations (male and female) are combined, they are initially adapted to the conditions of existence in a new state, then a regime coefficient comes into play, establishing the regime of future processes of production of new cells.
There are no special construction principles at the initial stages, but the gene code program sets the goal - to create the required number of cells that meet certain quality indicators. These cells should serve as the basis for subsequent structural formations. The determinant who participates in the construction of the child’s physical body must know within what limits of the law he is obliged to work, and within what limits he is free.
The program for building a physical body contains the sequence of constructing the child’s organs, various body systems and at the appropriate time activates a special mode of operation. Each organ is built separately from the others, has its own structure, chemical composition, individual technology, a separate subroutine for its construction and a separate program for its functioning. The structures of organs must be built in such a way as to ensure their further normal operation, its correct rhythm and provide, through the use of special coefficients, the interconnection of their processes with others.
The complexity of the relationship lies in the fact that completely different processes are combined, often giving opposite results (for example, venous and arterial blood are combined in the work of the heart). And the great art of the Creators who created man lies in skillfully combining them in the functions of one organ, although it is necessary to combine various chemical compositions, reactions, various complex technologies for receiving and releasing energies of a wide range of frequencies, and much more that is little known to man.
The physical body, in addition to the material basis, also contains an energy system with the presence of negative and positive energies, which are formed together with the construction of the child’s body itself. The energy system, located directly in the material shell, has its own conducting energy channels and energy collectors. In addition, each cell, each organ has its own energy structure, which, when combined, create the energy structure of the entire body, that is, the work of the material shell is based on the functioning of many individual systems. And only thanks to the presence of strong common connections that unite everything together, the basis for the fundamental structure and its progressive development in subsequent stages is created.
The program for the formation of the physical body, which is a separate program distinct from the program for the subsequent progression of a person, includes the sequence of building the organs and the body as a whole. And for this purpose, the program contains a regime adaptation coefficient, which helps to form the qualitative composition of organ cells over a given period of time. If the outer body requires 9 months to form, then each organ and system of the body is given its own time.
Any organ has its own cells, different in structure and quality from the cells of other organs. Accordingly, the quality of the energy of the organs is individual, or in other words, we can say that any organ works on its own type of energy, therefore all such difficulties must be taken into account during construction and docked correctly.
The construction of organs in the body is distributed in a given way over time: some organs are created earlier, others later, energy systems are formed inside them, everything is correlated in a certain way with each other and the general body, since the necessary correlation of their structures must be maintained, because due to their functional dependence they they cannot all be built at the same time.
The location of the emerging volumes of organs and systems relative to each other spatially in a certain order is also important in the sense that not all organs should immediately get involved and begin their direct functioning. Initially, organs and systems are built that, in connection with the mother’s body, must work together, and then organs that switch to an autonomous mode of operation. The program for building a physical body must also take into account the fact that some parts of the body quickly wear out under overload and therefore will require restoration processes of the cells of organs and tissues. All this is foreseen and laid down in advance.
When forming the physical body, the chemical, physical, and energy balance of all systems and the body as a whole must be maintained. The body must work stably - this is the success of the future normal development of the child. Such balance and control over the established relationships between organs and systems is supported and maintained by a special balancing apparatus.
Organs, as private components of a single organism, work as independent factories: using their own fuel, they produce their products, and their technological processes are individualized. They also have personal reserves of energy, that is, each organ has its own reserve of energy on the subtle plane, which, according to the norms, is allocated to this organ by the Determinant of a given person. He directly monitors the feeding of the organs with the necessary energy at certain periods. At the same time, being involved in the process of work, the organs themselves begin to produce energy of their own type, which is collected into egregors - certain energy collectors at the disposal of the Determinant.
The systematic construction of forms and systems represents in the program a staged arrangement of them in the production volume of the body and a sequential, systematic build-up of cells and energy components, connecting them with connections and channels, which should in the future ensure their coordinated joint work, as well as the construction of certain boundaries for each type of cell, united by a common goal and functioning, i.e. The initial step is the exact spatial arrangement of all parts and systems located inside the volume of the body, and then their immediate detailed construction begins.
Each organ is endowed with its own external boundaries, which make it possible to isolate the internal contents of the organ from others to improve its independent functioning. Isolation rids cells of extraneous influences that could impair their functioning. And at the same time, the boundaries, fulfilling the necessary diffusion connections, limit the influence of the cells of a given organ on other systems.
The physical body is a multiphase formation, since it contains multi-level structures arranged in a given order. The presence of organs and systems belonging to different Levels indicates the presence in them of different qualitative energies and different potentials of the organs.
Every organ has its own energy potential. And in order to combine such heterogeneity and texture into a single mechanism that works smoothly in the human body, correct construction alone is not enough. An accurate numerical calculation is required, which is carried out by special Higher Calculation Authorities that compose programs for the construction and development of the physical body for one life. The program they compiled includes all the calculation-code coefficients that are necessary for subsequent transformative-transition states in the body.
All internal life support processes of the human body, its regulation and management of development from the initial moment of origin to aging and death occur on the basis of a program of the physical body compiled from Above using a complex system of calculations. But it works under the control of the basic program of human life.
Programs for the development of body and soul are two different programs, but they are interconnected, since one cannot exist without the other.
The inclusion of the program for the development of the material body occurs from the initial moment of cell division, and then everything goes according to the program for building the organism, but under the constant supervision of the Determinant, who will subsequently guide this person through life.
The determinant controls the inclusion of the program and its subsequent reversal. He can also make the necessary adjustments in the structure of the body, introduce some kind of congenital diseases in certain organs or injuries, which the development program includes according to the law of cause and effect. That is, the Determinant changes the structure of some cells in the organs or members of the body in such a way that the normal functioning of the organism as a whole is maintained.
The construction of some parts of the body depends on the construction of others, just as, for example, the walls of a house cannot be built without a foundation, and the roof cannot be built without walls, because everything is dependent on each other if it concerns a holistic construction. Likewise, when creating an organism, there is a consistent interconnection of some parts with others, both in the material structure of the body and in the energy structure, in compliance with their hierarchical laws. All organs are located in the body from bottom to top according to their hierarchical distribution of importance, so everything that is lower is at the bottom, everything that is higher is at the top.
Each organ has, at the same time, its own hierarchy, therefore, although it is composed of cells of the same type that perform a homogeneous function, these cells are not equivalent to each other, and some of them are higher in energy, others less so. Therefore, in the hierarchy of an organ, there is their Level distribution according to energy order, and, consequently, functional priority.
The belonging of a group of organ cells to one or another Level indicates their dependence on the energies or quality indicators they have not collected. Each homogeneous cell (liver, heart, kidney) must have a certain nomenclature set of energies, and the content of the latter fluctuates in the cell within certain limits depending on their Level.
A certain coefficient existing at each Level expresses the dependence of the available energies on their full composition, which is necessary for the absolute composite of maximum formation. All energies produced by the cells of an organ are collected in some volumetric storage unit of a given energy spectrum. When the absolute composition is achieved, this volumetric accumulator contains a full set of energies of a specific spectrum and serves as the basis for another, even larger - maxi-volume with a corresponding set of qualities.
Since each organ as a whole represents an independent hierarchy, which embodies a certain total potential, the entire human body also exhibits a versatile potential of a certain power. Therefore, the human body is similar to the general system of the maxi-organism of Nature and the Universe and has similar signs of development and striving towards a goal.
The similarity is manifested in the construction of shapes and volumes, as well as in any physiological construction in which many individual private forms are combined together to create an absolute qualitative composition of nominees.
In turn, the nominees are united into a large structure with an even greater degree of responsibility and consciousness: man - Essence - God - Absolute. In global buildings, awareness increases, which is the main factor determining the level of development. Absolutely constructed forms and volumes (Essence, God, Absolute) are characterized by a high degree of responsibility for their actions. And this is the main thing in any improvement. The higher the level of development, the greater the responsibility.
The fact of the sequential origin of organs in the body and their development according to certain patterns indicates the presence of special laws according to which each of them is built. The law of construction of the physical body includes sub-laws for the construction of specific organs. The general law of configurative construction, as the basis for the formation and arrangement of mini-systems in the body, takes their hierarchical arrangement at Levels, and therefore organs belonging to a low Level are built first, and higher ones are formed on their basis. And this is the main thing in the natural principles of construction; those. location in the body and order of structure begins from the lower Level of the hierarchy of the physical body. An exception in the order is the heart, which stands above all, but is formed earlier than some of the organs below it.
The entire organism exists in a certain time period specified by the general development program. But at the same time, each organ, as a potential system, lives and works in its own time, and they also have their own speed of processes. However, their interrelation in a single work on the whole organism indicates their dependence in functioning on each other. Therefore, the general program links in time the speed of various processes in individual organs.
The speed of processes in one organ can fluctuate within specified limits, so reactions can occur slowly or accelerated, depending on a number of other factors, and in particular, on the influence of other organs on this organ.
In accordance with the presence of the law of construction, the responsibility for the functioning of organs is introduced into the need to obey the Higher Level and b O greater potentials.
The mechanism of the structural arrangement and construction of particular forms in the body is dominant, subordinating all other processes for the period of time during which a given volume must be built. All the main processes during the construction period are aimed at creating the required structure, and therefore the reactions in the body under construction do not correspond to those processes that occur during the period of normal functioning, when all the individual components of the body have already been built. But since organs do not remain unchanged, but constantly change over time (in a child’s body they grow, in an old one they begin to reduce their activity), then the processes occurring in the body also change, which is included in the program.
Time plays a major role in the regulation of processes. Therefore, it is included in the body development program as the main regulator of the stages of progression.
Time, strictly connected with the program, includes at the right moment the points of completion of the set goals. This activates the body’s activity in the required direction and helps strengthen the potential of the entire human physiology. The program is aimed at complicating the work of the body in order to acquire maximum power (not including the aging stage, at which greater emphasis is placed not on the body, but on improving the soul).
The principle of development of the physiology of the body lies in the contractual order of functioning when improving certain actions by a person, that is, when he performs some actions (he runs), some organs are included in the work in a certain order sequence, during other actions (he eats) - other organs, and also in the sequence established for them. In these cases, the contract coefficient works, including the corresponding chain of relationships leading to the systematic work of the whole organism.
One of the main legislative processes occurring in the body is the timeliness of the creation of given states. This contributes to the inclusion of additional factors that activate the work of the body both in organic matter itself and in its subtle structures.
That is, any environmental irritants must cause corresponding and timely formations inside the body: this is a change in chemical reactions, the appearance of necessary physiological components or enzymes; response muscular reactions necessary for various life situations, or response to light, music, smell, temperature stimuli, etc. All this must also be coordinated in a certain chain of interactions in a purposeful form of progression, leading to the necessary results.
This method of developing such particular states as organs and other body systems allows us to improve a unified network of messages in the whole organism.
All cells of one organ, as a result of their interactions, create the potential of this organ, or its Essence. All connecting networks of the body form several Essential instances of the corresponding names, which form connecting connections on an even larger scale.
